1. Close Reading
Notes

2. Understanding; Analysis; Evaluation. The Questions
Questions fall into three categories
Understanding;
Analysis;
Evaluation.
Each question has U, A or E after it to help you work out the type of question.

3. Understanding

4. Understanding 1) Using Your Own Words
This is the easiest type of question. It demonstrates you understand what the passage is about.
Do not ‘lift’ whole phrases;
Own words means exactly that. You should do this for all U questions even if it doesn’t specifically say so in the question.

5. Working Out What Words and Phrases Mean (Context Questions)
This aspect of understanding tests you ability to work out what a key word or expression means from the sentences surrounding it.
Typical Question:
Explain how the context helps you arrive at the meaning of … (word or phrase)
  To answer you must look at what comes before and after the word or phrase and work out the full meaning.
It is not enough to just write the meaning of the word. You must also show how the context helped you to arrive at that meaning!

6. Inference
This aspect of understanding tests you ability to work out the implication or suggestion behind a writer’s use of words and phrases.
To answer this type of question, you need to look at key words and phrases and their connotations. Do not just repeat the detail given. You must make a statement about the writer’s feelings and then go on to prove it.

7. Key Points
You may well be asked to summarise the main / key points or write a brief summary of the passage.
To answer this type of question you should get into the habit of underlining any major points which directly refer to the passage. The title of the passage will, of course, give you an indication of what the passage will be about.
You need to be able to separate the main points from the supporting detail.

8. Linkage
This aspect of understanding tests your ability to identify key words, phrases or techniques which are used to indicate how points are linked, how an argument develops or how points relate to each other.
Effective linkage allows the passage to flow smoothly from start to finish.

9. Linking Words (i) Words which show a further point is being made:
e.g. Furthermore, in addition, also, secondly, then etc.
(ii)     Words which show that the next point will challenge the last one:
e.g. But, on the other hand, conversely etc.
(iii)    Words which remind a reader where they are in a piece of writing.
e.g. Firstly, secondly, so, to sum up, in conclusion, finally etc.

10. More on Linking Words
(iv) Words which illustrate a point just made. e.g. For example, to illustrate this etc. (v) Paragraphs may also be linked by asking a question at the end of one paragraph and answering it in another. (vi) If a writer has referred to someone by name in a previous paragraph and then refers to them using a pronoun (he, she, they, we) then a link has been made. This is the same with objects (it etc.)

11. Topic Sentences
This aspect of understanding tests your ability to be able to distinguish between the important sentence(s) in a paragraph and those which extend an idea.

12. To identify a topic sentence think about the following:
(i)     Does the sentence make a clear statement?
(ii)    Does it contain a new idea which is then developed?
(iii)   Does it make a new point in the argument?
(iv)  Is it a new development in the narrative?
(Answer yes? Then it’s probably a topic sentence!)

13. (v) Does it simply illustrate or give an example?
(vi)    Does it merely extend an idea already stated?
(vii)   Does it seem to summarise the paragraph?
(Answer yes? Then it probably isn’t a topic sentence!)

14. Analysis

15. Analysis
These questions focus on style and will be on structure or language.
Structure Questions- Sentence structure
Punctuation
Repetition
Sentence length
Paragraphing
Order of material
Language Questions- Word choice
Imagery
Tone

16. Sentence Structure
You will be asked to comment on the structure of a sentence. The question is not just asking you to explain what the writer means but is asking you to comment on how the sentence is put together. You will need to be able to recognise:
(i)   different types of sentences;
(ii)  how sentences can be separated or linked by different kinds of punctuation;
(iii)  how the parts of a sentence can be arranged according to patterns;
(iv)  how writer’s use different sentence structures.

17. Types of Sentence
A sentence is a group of words which contain a verb and makes complete sense.
A Statement: John is sitting down.
A Question: Is John sitting down?
(Remember the rhetorical question)
An Exclamation: John is sitting down!
(Used to convey amazement, shock or emotion)
A Command: Sit down, John.
(Used in instructions and persuasive writing)

18. (2 simple sentences linked in one sentence and given equal importance)
Usually you would divide sentences into clauses. There are three types:
(i) Simple: John hit the ball into the garden.
(ii) Compound: John hit the ball into the garden but Mary threw the bat through the window.
(2 simple sentences linked in one sentence and given equal importance)
(iii) Complex: Because he was tired, John hit the ball into the garden.
(1 sentence consisting of two or more clauses linked together by conjunctions.)
NB: One clause will make sense on its own – Principal
Clauses which don’t are called ‘sub-ordinate’

19. Length of Sentence?
Long sentences = serious subject and a heavy effect.
Short sentence =  tension, fast moving action.
Sometimes the verb is omitted for dramatic effect.
e.g. He looked in the rear-view mirror. Nothing coming.
The underlined sentence is known as a minor sentence!
Creates impact, suspense or urgency;
Suggests informality;
Used as abbreviations in notes and diaries.

20. Paragraphing
This is used to break writing up into easily digestible parts. Why?
Often to have an instant impact or to help a reader to understand better. This may take the form of a very short paragraph – often just one line on its own.
It also throws emphasis on a particular idea.
It can slow action and create suspense.

21. Punctuation
Punctuation is interesting in the way it affects style and meaning.
It is a useful guide as to how a sentence or phrase or word should be emphasised.

22. Colon  :   introduces a quotation, a list or an explanation of a previous statement.
  (e.g. The witches in ‘Macbeth’ said: ‘Fair is foul and foul is fair.’)
Semi-colon  ;  comes between two statements that are closely connected, or which balance or contrast one another. Also separates a list of phrases.
(e.g. The first present she opened was a book; the second a CD)

23. Single Dash - used to add an extra piece of information or to indicate the breaking off of a sentence. A series of dashes indicates an outpouring of emotion.
e.g. The judge announced the verdict – guilty.
Two Dashes - - marks of an extra, non essential piece of information. (Parenthesis)
e.g. That day – many years ago – will always be with me.
Inverted Commas ‘ ’  enclosed quotes, direct speech or the title of something.

24. Sentence Patterns
(i) Inversion Inversion is used to alter the emphasis of a sentence. In normal English, the normal order is for the subject to come first followed by the predicate (words which tell us more about the subject!) e.g. Flames (subject) leapt up and up predicate) CORRECT! Up and up (predicate) leapt the flames (subject) INVERSION!

25. (ii)  Repetition
Used to hammer home a message for a particular effect.
(iii)  Climax and Anti-Climax
CLIMAX leaves the most important statement to the end.
ANTI-CLIMAX builds up the reader to expect something that does not happen.
(iv)  Antithesis
This is the counter-argument. It balances the argument.

26. So, when thinking about sentence structure questions, consider the following:
·         The complexity of the sentence (simple, compound etc);
·         It’s function (statement, question etc);
·         Punctuation;
·         Length of sentence;
·         Whether it is balanced or not;
·         Whether it is a rhetorical question;
·         Any repetition;
·         The order of words within the sentence.

27. Figurative Language
The ‘usual’ terms you should know – but there are a whole host of other figures of speech that you should be aware of, especially if you come across an argumentative piece of close reading.

28. The ‘usuals’ Simile Metaphor Alliteration Personification Onomatopoeia
Repetition
Hyperbole
Ambiguity
Analogy
Anthropomorphism
Cliché
Imagery
Irony
Juxtaposition
Oxymoron
Paradox
Pun
Sarcasm
Satire
Stream of consciousness
Symbolism

29. A good way to work out if the author is using figurative language is to ask yourself: ‘Is the thing actually present?’ If not then the language is being used figuratively.
When answering a question on the use of figurative language (imagery) you must find the points of comparison and decide how this helped your understanding of what the writer was trying to say.

30. Other terms you may not know:
Litotes: The use of understatement. Euphemism: Ways of making an unwelcome truth seem less harsh. Circumlocution: To ‘talk round’ something rather than address it directly. Neologism: The use of ‘new’ words.. Archaism: The use of ‘old’ words.

31. Tone
Tone relates to the way in which something is said. It refers to a particular attitude or feeling conveyed by the author. In order to work out the tone you’ll need to look at the type of language. Formal: standard English, complex sentences, no contractions, correct grammar. Informal: colloquial, slang, dialect, simple sentences, contractions, incorrect grammar.

32. Types of Tone
Humorous: Author will amuse you. Flippant: A light-hearted look at something serious. Conversational: Chatty and friendly language. Effusive: Enthusiastic towards the subject. Ironic: Where the opposite of what is stated is meant.

33. Tongue in cheek: Form of irony
Tongue in cheek:    Form of irony. The writer will sound serious but will ridicule the subject as a result.
Satire:  Irony – the writer is funny in a savage or nasty way.
Serious:   Solemn occasions.. Formal, ponderous or pompous could also be used.
Sarcastic:    A form of satire.

34. Evaluation
These questions will ask you to weigh up how well the writer has achieved the purpose he/she intended.
You have to make a judgement and back this up with reference to the text (that means quotations!).
You may well be asked to assess the effectiveness of the writer’s stance on the issue he/she is writing about.

35. Writer’s Purpose This is usually to achieve the following:
Educate the reader…
Success?
Issue is presented clearly
Good, factual evidence
You learn something
Presented in a thought-provoking way
You want to know more

36. Explore an issue and offer his/her point of view…
Success?
All sides are fully explored
Writer’s point of view is convincing
Writer’s opinion is strong and clear
There is evidence of research
Conclusions are reasonable and sensible

37. Appealing to the reader’s emotions…
Success?
You are personally involved
You have an emotional response
You react the way the reader intended

38. To change the reader’s mind…
Success?
Writer presents a watertight case
Is argued sincerely and convincingly
Evidence is used
Challenges common perceptions
Subject is dealt with objectively

39. How well…? Ask yourself, ‘What makes it interesting?’
Subject, language, your reaction or the tone.
Ask yourself, ‘What makes it effective?’
Quality of research, sincerity, strength of feeling, the way the writer engaged you, the fact it’s easily understood or that it achieves its purpose.

40. Writer’s Stance
This is the writer’s opinion on a subject and it is usually fairly obvious due to language and tone

41. With evaluation questions (particularly end questions), you may refer to parts of the passage you have already used for other answers, but avoid full repetition—too much recycling gains no marks!