1. ESSENTIALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
8TH EDITION
By Robert Feldman
Powerpoint slides by Kimberly Foreman

2. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
CHAPTER EIGHT:
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

3. MODULE 24: Explaining Motivation
How does motivation direct and energize behavior?

4. Motivation
Factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms

5. Instinct Approaches: Born to Be Motivated
Instincts
Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned
Psychologists do not agree on what, or how many, primary instincts exist

6. Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs
Suggest that a lack of some basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement
Drive
Motivation tension, or arousal, that energized behavior to fulfill a need
Primary
Secondary

7. Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs
Homeostasis
Body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state
Underlies primary drives
Uses feedback loops
Need for food, water, stable body temperature, and sleep

8. Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction
Seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement
People vary widely in the optimal level of arousal they seek out

9. Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull
Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives
Many psychologists believe that the internal drives proposed by drive-reduction theory work in tandem with the external incentives of incentive theory to “push” and “pull” behavior

10. Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation
Suggest that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation

11. Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs
Suggests that before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied
Abraham Maslow
Self-actualization
State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential

12. Maslow’s Hierarchy
Figure 2 of Module 24

13. MODULE 25: Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring
What biological and social factors underlie hunger?
What are the varieties of sexual behavior?
How are needs relating to achievement, affiliation, and power motivation exhibited?

14. The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating
Obesity
¼ of people in the United States
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Based on ratio of weight to height
Figure 1 of Module 25

15. The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating
Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
Hypothalamus
Monitors glucose levels
Lateral hypothalamus
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Weight set point
Metabolism

16. The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating
Social Factors in Eating
Societal rules
Cultural influences
Individual habits
Operant conditioning
Associating food with comfort and consolation

17. The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating
The Roots of Obesity
Oversensitivity to external eating cues
Insensitivity to internal hunger cues
Higher weight set points
Leptin
Rate of weight gain during the first four months of life is related to being overweight during later childhood

18. Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia
Refusal to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance are unusual
Bulimia
Disorder in which people binge on large quantities of food
Purging
Exercise bulimia

19. Brains of People with Eating Disorders
Figure 2 of Module 25

20. Dieting and Losing Weight Successfully
There is no easy route to weight control
Keep track of what you eat and what you weigh
Eat “big” foods
Bulky and heavy but low in calories
Cut out television
Exercise
Decrease the influence of external, social stimuli on your eating behavior
Avoid fad diets
Avoid taking diet pills
There is no magic pill
Maintain good eating habits
Set reasonable goals

21. Sexual Motivation Androgens Estrogens and Progesterone
Male sex hormones
Estrogens and Progesterone
Female sex hormones
Figure 3 of Module 25

22. Sexual Motivation Ovulation
When an egg is released from the ovaries, making the chances of fertilization by a sperm cell highest

23. Sexual Motivation Masturbation: Solitary Sex Heterosexuality
Sexual self-stimulation, often using the hand to rub the genitals
Heterosexuality
Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex

24. Sexual Motivation Premarital Sex Marital Sex Double standard
Dramatic change in public opinion
Marital Sex
Frequency varies
Extramarital sex

25. Sexual Motivation Homosexuality Bisexuality
Sexually attracted to members of their own sex
Gay
Lesbian
Bisexuality
Sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex

26. Sexual Motivation Transsexualism Transsexuals Transgenderism
People who believe they were born with the body of the other gender
Some seek sex-change operations
Transgenderism
Transsexuals and people who view themselves as a third gender, transvestites, or others who believe that traditional male-female gender classification inadequately characterizes themselves

27. The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
The Need for Achievement: Striving for Excellence
Stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence

28. The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
Measuring Achievement Motivation
Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT)
An examiner shows a series of ambiguous pictures, and the participant writes a story that describes what is happening
Figure 4 of Module 25

29. The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
The Need for Affiliation: Striving for Friendship
An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people
Gender is a great determinant of how much time is spent with friends

30. The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
The Need for Power: Striving for Impact on Others
Tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual
More apt to belong to organizations and seek office

31. MODULE 26: Understanding Emotional Experiences
What are emotions, and how do we experience them?
What are the functions of emotions?

32. MODULE 26: Understanding Emotional Experiences
What are the explanations for emotions?
How does nonverbal behavior relate to the expression of emotions?

33. Emotions
Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior

34. The Functions of Emotions
Preparing us for action
Shaping our future behavior
Helping us interact more effectively with others

35. Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings
There are various ways of categorizing emotions
Most researchers suggest that basic emotions include:
Happiness
Anger
Fear
Sadness
Disgust

36. The Roots of Emotions The James-Lange Theory
Proposes that we experience emotions as a result of physiological changes that produce specific sensations; and the brain interprets these sensations as specific kinds of emotional experiences

37. The Roots of Emotions The Cannon-Bard Theory
Assumes that both physiological arousal and the emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus, which emanates from the thalamus in the brain

38. James-Lange and Cannon-Bard Theories
Figure 2 of Module 26

39. The Roots of Emotions The Schachter-Singer Theory
Emphasizes that we identify the emotion we are experiencing by observing our environment and comparing ourselves with others
Supports a cognitive view of emotions

40. The Roots of Emotions
Contemporary Perspectives on the Neuroscience of Emotions
Because neural pathways connect the amygdala, the visual cortex, and the hippocampus, some scientists speculate that emotion-related stimuli can be processed and responded to almost instantaneously

41. The Roots of Emotions
Making Sense of the Multiple Perspectives on Emotion
Emotions are such complex phenomena, encompassing both biological and cognitive aspects, that no single theory has been able to explain fully all the facets of emotional experience

42. Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly?
Facial-affect program
Assumed to be universally present at birth
Analogous to a computer program that is turned on when a particular emotion is experienced
Displays an appropriate expression

43. Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly?
Facial-feedback hypothesis
Not only reflects emotional experience, but also helps determine how people experience and label emotions
Some theoreticians have suggested that facial expressions are necessary for an emotion to be experienced