1. Continued on next slide.

2. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers.
1. Semantic memory contains this type of knowledge. 
2. Episodic memory contains the memories of our own life. 
3. We have semantic memory in common with others. 
4. We share these common memories with other speakers of our language.
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4. Reader’s Guide Main Idea Objectives
There are three processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. 
Objectives
Explain the three processes of memory. 
Describe the information-processing model of memory.
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5. Chapter Objectives Section 1: Taking in and Storing Information
Describe the three processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. 
Section 2: Retrieving Information
Understand that stored memory can be retrieved by recognition, recall, and relearning.
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6. Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
memory 
semantic memory 
episodic memory 
declarative memory 
procedural memory
encoding 
storage 
retrieval 
sensory memory 
short-term memory 
maintenance rehearsal 
chunking 
Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1 begins on page 273 of your textbook.

7. Introduction
What would life without memory be like? Can you even imagine it? 
Consider all the material stored in your memory: 
your Social Security number 
the capital of South Dakota 
“The Star-Spangled Banner” 
you first love’s phone number 
the important generals of the Civil War 
the starting lineup for the Boston Red Sox 
your best friend in the first grade
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8. Introduction (cont.)
What kind of incredible filing system allows you to recover instantly a line from your favorite movie? 
How does all that information fit in your head?
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9. The Processes of Memory
The storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced is memory. 
To recall information, you use three memory processes. 
The first memory process is encoding–the transforming of information so that the nervous system can process it.
memory
the storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced
encoding
the transforming of information so the nervous system can process it
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10. The Process of Memory
Chart 1-1

11. The Processes of Memory (cont.)
After information is encoded, it goes through the second memory process, storage. 
This is the process by which information is maintained over a period of time. 
The amount of information stored depends on how much effort was put into encoding the information.
storage
the process by which information is maintained over a period of time
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12. The Processes of Memory (cont.)
The third memory process, retrieval, occurs when information is brought to mind from storage. 
The ease in which information can be retrieved depends on how efficiently it was encoded and stored (as well as on other factors such as genetic background).
retrieval
the process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory
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13. Three Stages of Memory
Once the senses encode a memory in the brain, the brain must hold on to the input and store it for future reference. 
Psychologists distinguish three types of memory–sensory, short-term, and long-term–each of which has a different function and time span.
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14. Sensory Memory
In sensory memory, the senses of sight and hearing (among other senses) are able to hold an input for a fraction of a second before it disappears. 
Sensory memory serves three functions: 
prevents you from being overwhelmed. 
gives you some decision time. 
allows for continuity and stability in your world.
sensory memory
very brief memory storage immediately following initial reception of a stimulus

15. Short-Term Memory
The things you have in your conscious mind at any one moment are being held in short-term memory. 
Short-term memory does not necessarily involve paying close attention.
short-term memory
memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items and in duration by the subject’s active rehearsal
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16. Short-Term Memory (cont.) Maintenance Rehearsal
To keep information in short-term memory for more than a few seconds, you usually have to repeat the information to yourself, in your mind or out loud. 
This is what psychologists mean by maintenance rehearsal.
maintenance rehearsal
a system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it
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17. Spot the Fake Penny
Chart 1-2

18. Short-Term Memory (cont.) Chunking
Short-term memory is limited not only in its duration but also in its capacity. 
The most interesting aspect of this limit, discovered by George Miller (1956), is that it involves about seven items (plus or minus two items) of any kind. 
Each item may consist of a collection of many other items, but if they are all packaged into one “chunk,” then there is still only one item.
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19. Short-Term Memory (cont.) Chunking
We can remember about seven unrelated sets of initials or the initials of our favorite radio stations, even though we could not remember all the letters separately. 
This is referred to as chunking, because we have connected, or “chunked,” them together.
chunking
the process of grouping items to make them easier to remember
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20. Short-Term Memory (cont.) The Primacy-Recency Effect
The primacy-recency effect refers to the fact that we are better able to recall information presented at the beginning and end of a list. 
Remembering the first four or five items in a list because you have more time to rehearse them is the primacy effect. 
Recalling the last four or five items because they were still in short-term memory is the recency effect.
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21. Short-Term Memory (cont.) Working Memory
Short-term memory is also called working memory. 
Working memory serves as a system for processing and working with current information. 
Working memory includes both short-term memory (events that just occurred) and information stored in long-term memory, now recalled for current information.
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22. Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory refers to the storage of information over extended periods of time. 
Information is not stored like a piece of paper in a filing cabinet; it is stored according to categories or features. 
You reconstruct what you must recall when you need it. 
Long-term memory contains representations of countless facts, experiences, and sensations.
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23. Three Systems of Memory
Chart 1-3

24. Long-Term Memory (cont.) Types of Long-Term Memory
For almost a century, the study of memory focused on how long information was stored for usage. 
Then a Canadian psychologist, Endel Tulving (1972), proposed that we have two types of memory.
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25. Long-Term Memory (cont.) Types of Long-Term Memory
Semantic memory is our knowledge of language, including its rules, words, and meanings; we share that knowledge with other speakers of our language. 
Episodic memory is our memory of our own life–such as when you woke up this morning.
semantic memory
knowledge of language, including its rules, words, and meanings
episodic memory
memory of one’s life, including time of occurrence
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26. Long-Term Memory (cont.) Types of Long-Term Memory
L.R. Squire (1987) proposed a related model of memory. 
Declarative memory involves both episodic and semantic memory. 
Procedural memory does not require conscious recollection to have past learning or experiences impact our performance.
declarative memory
memory of knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed
procedural memory
memory of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection
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27. Memory and the Brain
What happens in the brain when something is stored in long-term memory? 
Although psychologists agree that some physiological changes occur in the brain, they are only beginning to identify how and where memories are stored. 
Some psychologists theorize a change in the neuronal structure of nerves occurs when we learn something. 
Others contend learning is based on molecular or chemical changes in the brain.
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28. Memory and the Brain (cont.)
Where does learning occur? 
There is growing evidence that formation of procedural memories involves activity in an area of the brain called the striatum, deep in the front part of our cortex. 
Declarative memories result from activity in the hippocampus and the amygdala (Mishkin, Saunders, & Murray, 1984).
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29. Memory Centers in the Brain
Chart 1-4

30. Memory and the Brain (cont.)
It is not clear yet how individual nerve cells–called neurons–establish connections with one another when learning occurs. 
It is clear that a very complex chemical process precedes the formation of new connections between neurons. 
Exactly how it all fits together remains an active area of research.
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31. Psychology Journal (Section 1)
List examples of chunking that you have used in the last week.

32. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
Case Studies 1
The Case of H.M.
Read the case study presented on page 281 of your textbook. Be prepared to answer the questions that appear on the following slides. A discussion prompt and additional information follow the questions.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.

33. Case Studies 2 The Case of H.M.
What type of surgery did H.M. have? Why?
H.M. had the hippocampus area of his brain removed in an attempt to stop, or at least minimize, the occurrence of epileptic seizures.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.

34. Case Studies 3 The Case of H.M.
What problems did H.M. encounter following the surgery? Why?
H.M. could not form new long-term memories. The hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of memories. It is not involved in storing long-term memory, but it does act as a pathway through which information travels.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.

35. Case Studies 4 The Case of H.M.
Critical Thinking If a virus suddenly destroyed your hippocampus, what effect would it have on your performance in school?
You would not be able to pass tests on new material, although you would still be able to perform well on aptitude tests of learning that had occurred before the virus destroyed the hippocampus.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.

36. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
Case Studies 5
The Case of H.M.
Discuss the following:
Why do you think H.M.’s existing memories were unaffected? What does the fact that he could still learn motor skills tell you about procedural memory?
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.

37. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
Case Studies 6
The Case of H.M.
Unlike other parts of the brain, the hippocampus continues to grow throughout your lifetime. Researchers are making efforts to boost the production of these brain cells. 
Researchers are currently exploring links between stress hormones such as corticosteroids and memory loss. Studies in rats have shown that by blocking stress hormones, the production of brain cells in the hippocampus increased.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.

38. This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.
Case Studies 7
The Case of H.M.
Since the body needs stress hormones, which are produced by the adrenal glands, it is not possible to remove these glands. Researchers, however, may be able to develop drugs to limit the production of the hormones and boost the production of brain cells.
This feature is found on page 281 of your textbook.

39. FYI 1.1
In addition to iconic and echoic memories, sensory memories are created by the other senses. They are known as haptic memory (touch), gustic memory (taste), and olfactic memory (smell).

40. Psychology Update 1.1 Memory and Language
A recent study conducted by Susan Ellis Weismer and Julia Evans examined the correlation between working memory and language skills. They examined two groups of children. The experimental group had been diagnosed with a specific language impairment. The control group had normal language skills. The study found a significant correlation between working memory and language skills development.
Continued on next slide.

41. Psychology Update 1.2 Memory and Language
However, the study did not clearly identify whether a deficit in language skills caused poor performance on tests of working memory or whether a deficit in working memory impaired the development of language skills.
Source: Weismer, S.E., & Evans J. (1999). An examination of verbal working memory capacity in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 42 (5), 1249–60.

42. Profiles in Psychology 1.1
Elizabeth Loftus 1944–
Click the picture to listen to a biography on Elizabeth Loftus. Be prepared to answer questions that appear on the next two slides.
This feature is found on page 285 of your textbook.

43. Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
End of Slide Show
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