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Exploring the source and exploitation of genetic alterations
Biotechnology Exploring the source and exploitation of genetic alterations
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Directions: Carefully read through ALL slides of this tutorial (60 slides total). TAKE NOTES on the back of this sheet on the Biotech information. These should be ‘K.I.S.S.’ format … ‘Keep it Short & Simple’ … stick to the key facts presented. Check vocab. definitions against your list from Ch. 13 if needed. Make sure you understand each slide before moving on to the next one!
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13.1 Applied Genetics Selective Breeding
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.1 Applied Genetics Selective Breeding The process by which desired traits of certain plants and animals are selected and passed on to their future generations is called selective breeding. Saint Bernard Rescue dog Husky Sled dog German shepherd Service dog
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.1 Applied Genetics Hybridization Hybrid organisms can be bred to be more disease-resistant, to produce more offspring, or to grow faster. A disadvantage of hybridization is that it is time consuming and expensive.
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Pure breeds are maintained by inbreeding.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.1 Applied Genetics Inbreeding The process in which two closely related organisms are bred to have the desired traits and to eliminate the undesired ones in future generations Pure breeds are maintained by inbreeding. A disadvantage of inbreeding is that harmful recessive traits also can be passed on to future generations.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.1 Applied Genetics Test Cross A test cross involves breeding an organism that has the unknown genotype with one that is homozygous recessive for the desired trait.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Genetic Engineering Technology that involves manipulating the DNA of one organism in order to insert the DNA of another organism, called exogenous DNA.
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Genetically engineered organisms are used
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Genetically engineered organisms are used to study the expression of a particular gene. to investigate cellular processes. to study the development of a certain disease. Genetically engineered bollworm to select traits that might be beneficial to humans.
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An organism’s genome is the total DNA in the nucleus of each cell.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology DNA Tools An organism’s genome is the total DNA in the nucleus of each cell. DNA tools can be used to manipulate DNA and to isolate genes from the rest of the genome.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Restriction enzymes recognize and bind to specific DNA sequences and cleave the DNA within the sequence. Scientists use restriction enzymes as powerful tools for isolating specific genes or regions of the genome.
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EcoRI specifically cuts DNA containing the sequence GAATTC.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology EcoRI specifically cuts DNA containing the sequence GAATTC. The ends of the DNA fragments, called sticky ends, contain single-stranded DNA that is complementary.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology
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The smaller fragments move farther faster than the larger ones.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology An electric current is used to separate DNA fragments according to the size of the fragments in a process called gel electrophoresis. When an electric current is applied, the DNA fragments move toward the positive end of the gel. The smaller fragments move farther faster than the larger ones.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Gel electrophoresis The unique pattern created based on the size of the DNA fragment can be compared to known DNA fragments for identification.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology The newly generated DNA molecule with DNA from different sources is called recombinant DNA.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology To make a large quantity of recombinant plasmid DNA, bacterial cells are mixed with recombinant plasmid DNA. Some of the bacterial cells take up the recombinant plasmid DNA through a process called transformation.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Large numbers of identical bacteria, each containing the inserted DNA molecules, can be produced through a process called cloning.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology To understand how DNA is sequenced, scientists mix an unknown DNA fragment, DNA polymerase, and the four nucleotides—A, C, G, T in a tube.
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Each nucleotide is tagged with a different color of fluorescent dye.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Each nucleotide is tagged with a different color of fluorescent dye. Every time a modified fluorescent-tagged nucleotide is incorporated into the newly synthesized strand, the reaction stops.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology The sequencing reaction is complete when the tagged DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology A technique called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used to make millions of copies of a specific region of a DNA fragment. PCR Analysis
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Biotechnology Organisms, genetically engineered by inserting a gene from another organism, are called transgenic organisms.
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Mice, fruit flies, and the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Transgenic Animals Scientists produce most transgenic animals in laboratories for biological research. Mice, fruit flies, and the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans
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Genetically engineered cotton resists insect infestation of the bolls.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.2 DNA Technology Transgenic Plants Genetically engineered cotton resists insect infestation of the bolls. Sweet-potato plants are resistant to a virus that could kill most of the African harvest. Rice plants with increased iron and vitamins could decrease malnutrition. Gene Splicing
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The Human Genome Project
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome The Human Genome Project The goal of the Human Genome Project (HGP) was to determine the sequence of the approximately three billion nucleotides that make up human DNA and to identify all of the approximately 20,000–25,000 human genes.
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Each of the 46 human chromosomes was cleaved.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome Sequencing the Genome Each of the 46 human chromosomes was cleaved. These fragments were combined with vectors to create recombinant DNA, cloned to make many copies, and sequenced using automated sequencing machines. Computers analyzed the overlapping regions to generate one continuous sequence.
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Decoding the sequence of the human genome can be compared to
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome Decoding the sequence of the human genome can be compared to reading a book that was printed in code.
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These regions are called noncoding sequences.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome Less than two percent of all of the nucleotides in the human genome code for all the proteins in the body. The genome is filled with long stretches of repeated sequences that have no direct function. These regions are called noncoding sequences.
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Protein-coding regions of DNA are almost identical among individuals.
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome DNA Fingerprinting Protein-coding regions of DNA are almost identical among individuals. The long stretches of noncoding regions of DNA are unique to each individual. DNA fingerprinting involves separating these DNA fragments to observe the distinct banding patterns that are unique to every individual.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome Identifying Genes Researchers have identified genes by scanning the sequence for Open Reading Frames (ORFs). ORFs contain at least 100 codons that begin with a start codon and end with a stop codon.
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Creating and maintaining databases of biological information
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome Bioinformatics Creating and maintaining databases of biological information Finding genes in DNA sequences of various organisms and developing methods to predict the structure and function of newly discovered proteins
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome DNA Microarrays Tiny microscope slides or silicon chips that are spotted with DNA fragments Help researchers determine whether the expression of certain genes is caused by genetic factors or environmental factors. Visualizing Microarray Analysis
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome Variations in the DNA sequence that occur when a single nucleotide in the genome is altered are called single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome Regions of linked variations in the human genome are known as haplotypes. Assembling the HapMap involves identifying groups of SNPs in a specific region of DNA.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome The HapMap will enable geneticists to take advantage of how SNPs and other genetic variations are organized on chromosomes.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome The study of how genetic inheritance affects the body’s response to drugs is called pharmacogenomics. The benefits of pharmacogenomics include more accurate dosing of drugs that are safer and more specific.
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A technique aimed at correcting mutated genes
Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome A technique aimed at correcting mutated genes that cause human diseases is called gene therapy. Scientists insert a normal gene into a chromosome to replace a dysfunctional gene. Genomics is the study of an organism’s genome.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome Genes are the primary information storage units, whereas proteins are the machines of a cell.
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Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology 13.3 The Human Genome The large-scale study and cataloging of the structure and function of proteins in the human body is called proteomics.
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Can we modify the genetic code of living things? (& should we?)
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Means of genetic manipulation
Selective breeding Of dissimilar individuals, called hybridization Of similar individuals, called inbreeding Increasing genetic variation Mutation caused by mutagen (radiation or chemicals) Use of drugs to produce polyploids Genetic engineering!!! (direct manipulation of an organism’s genes)
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Genetic Engineering Also known as…
Genetic modification or manipulation Recombinant DNA technology Gene splicing
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Genetic Engineering Uses two main techniques or processes:
Gene cloning (makes copies) Transformation (take up new DNA)
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Tools of genetic engineering
Restriction enzymes cut DNA at a specific place in the code Gene splicing recombines DNA from different sources Vectors & plasmids harvest DNA for cloning
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As easy as 1, 2, 3… Rabbit DNA + Crab DNA = Crabbit !!
How’s it done? As easy as 1, 2, 3… Rabbit DNA + Crab DNA = Crabbit !!
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How to genetically engineer DNA
Begin with the source DNA you want Cut out a DNA fragment from the source DNA with restriction enzyme Cut out a sequence from the plasmid with the same restriction enzyme The source DNA is inserted into plasmid
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How to genetically engineer DNA
Bacteria have to take up the foreign DNA. This is called transformation. Bacteria becomes a cloning vector, making copies of recombinant DNA
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( - 1) Try your hand at gene therapy – click here)
Applications Genetic screening identifies “broken” DNA Gene therapy uses recombinant DNA technology to replace an absent or faulty gene with a normal, working gene ( - 1) Try your hand at gene therapy – click here)
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Applications Gene splicing uses recombinant DNA technology to produce transgenic organisms (organisms with other organisms’ genes) that help make better medicines, treatments, and supplements (Example: Transgenic Corn from our ‘Virtual Corn Lab’ 1st Qtr.!)
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Other tools of genetic engineering
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) copies DNA Gel electrophoresis makes a picture of DNA called a DNA fingerprint
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How to make a DNA fingerprint
Small amounts of DNA are extracted from blood, saliva, hair, urine, etc ( - 2) Click here for Virtual DNA extraction Lab) If the amount of DNA is too small, the polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, can be used to increase the quantity of DNA ( - 3) Click here for Virtual PCR lab)
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How to make a DNA fingerprint
DNA is cut into fragments of specific sizes by restriction enzymes DNA is put in a slab of gel and an electrical current moves DNA to the + electrode ( - 4) Click here for Virtual Gel Electrophoresis lab) Bigger pieces move more slowly & travel shorter distances
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How to make a DNA fingerprint
The banding pattern in the gel is analyzed
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Applications DNA fingerprinting identifies differences between individuals’ genetic makeup to establish identity or relationships
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Other tools of genetic engineering
Stem cells have the ability to develop into different cell types What is a stem cell? ( - 5) Click here for helpful animation) Types of stem cells ( - 6) Click here for helpful animation) Embryonic stem cells ( - 7) Click here for helpful animation) Somatic cell nuclear transfer ( - 8) Click here for Virtual Cloning Lab)
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Watch Nova scienceNow: Stem Cells (click here)
Applications Cloning DNA enables rapid, large-scale production of useful genes, cells, tissues Watch Nova scienceNow: Stem Cells (click here)
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How would you apply this technique to make a vaccine?
Problem… How would you apply this technique to make a vaccine? Hint: How do vaccines work? What does your immune system use to target foreign cells? Can your immune system be “tricked” into thinking it is infected with a virus?
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Is there a need for a cure? Should “broken” genes be fixed?
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