1. Sport in Society: Issues & Controversies
Sports and Children:
Are Organized Programs Worth the Effort?

2. Origins of Organized Youth Sports
Organized youth sports emerged in the 20th Century
The first programs focused on “masculinizing” boys
Organized youth sports grew rapidly in many industrialized countries after World War II
Programs in the U.S. emphasized competition as preparation for future occupational success
Girls’ interests generally were ignored

3. Social Changes Related to the Growth of Organized Youth Sports
Increase in working families
New definitions of “good parent”
Growing belief that informal activities lead to trouble for kids
Growing belief that the world is dangerous for children
Increased visibility of high-performance and professional sports in society

5. Major Trends in Youth Sports Today
Organized programs have become increasingly privatized
Organized programs increasingly emphasize the “performance ethic”
An increase in “elite training” facilities
Increased participation in “alternative sports”

6. Youth Sports: Types of Sponsors
Public, tax-supported community recreation programs
Public non-profit community organizations
Private nonprofit sport organizations
Private commercial clubs

7. Privatized Youth Sport Programs
Growth is associated with the decline in publicly funded programs
Most common in middle- and upper-middle income areas
May reproduce economic and ethnic inequalities in society
May not be committed to gender equity
Private programs are not accountable in the same way as public programs

8. The “Performance Ethic”
Refers to emphasizing measured outcomes as indicators of the quality of sport experiences
Fun = becoming better
Emphasized in private programs
Related to parental notions of investing in their children’s future

9. Elite Sport Training Programs
Most common in private, commercial programs
Emphasize the potential for children to gain material rewards through sports
Children often “work” long hours and become like “laborers,” but programs are not governed by child labor laws
Raise ethical issues about adult-child relationships

11. New Interests in Alternative Sports
A response to highly structured, adult-controlled organized programs
Revolve around desires to be expressive and spontaneous
May have high injury rates and patterns of exclusion related to gender and social class
Are being appropriated by large corporations for advertising purposes

12. Different Experiences
Formal Sports Emphasize:
Formal rules
Set positions
Systematic guidance by adults
Status and outcomes
Informal Sports Emphasize:
Action
Personal involvement
Challenging experiences
Reaffirming friendships

13. Different Outcomes Formal Sports Emphasize: Informal Sports Emphasize:
Relationships with authority figures
Learning rules and strategies
Rule-governed teamwork & achievement
Informal Sports Emphasize:
Interpersonal & decision-making skills
Cooperation
Improvisation
Problem solving

15. When Are Children Ready to Play Organized, Competitive Sports?
Prior to age 12, children don’t have the ability to fully understand competitive team sports
They play “beehive soccer”
Children must lean how to cooperate before they can learn how to compete
Team sports require the use of a “third party perspective”
Role Taking Ability
Game Stage Developmental level

16. What Are the Dynamics of Family Relationships in Youth Sports?
Sports have the potential to bring families together
Being together does not always mean that close communication occurs
Children may feel pressure from parents
Parent labor in youth sports often reproduces gendered logic ideas
work
family

17. How Do Social Factors Influence Youth Sport Experiences?
Participation opportunities vary by social class
Encouragement often varies by gender and ability/disability
Self perceptions and the social consequences of participation vary by:
social class
sex
race/ethnicity
ability/disability
sexuality

18. Recommendations for Changing Informal & Alternative Sports
Make play spaces more safe and accessible to as many children as possible
Be sensitive to class and sex
Provide indirect guidance without being controlling
Treat sport as a worthwhile site for facing challenges
developing competence

19. Recommendations for Changing Organized Sports
Increase action
Increase personal involvement
Facilitate close scores and realistic challenges
Facilitate friendship formation and maintenance

20. Recommendations for Changing High-performance Programs
Establish policies, procedures, and rules to account for:
the rights of children participants
the interests of children participants
Create less controlling environments
to promote growth
to promote development
to promote empowerment

21. Prospects for Change
Often subverted when priority is given to efficiency and organization
over age-based developmental concerns
May be subverted by national organizations concerned with standardizing programs
May be subverted by adult administrators with vested interests in the status quo

22. Coaching Education Programs
Are useful when they provide coaches with information on
Dealing with children safely and responsibly
Organizing practices and teaching skills
Are problematic when they foster a “techno-science” approach to controlling children
Creating “sports efficiency experts” should not be the goal

23. Deviance in Sports: Is It Out of Control?

24. Problems Faced When Studying Deviance in Sports
Forms & causes of deviance are diverse
No single theory can explain all
Sports behavior may be deviant in other settings (All Star Wrestling)
Sports often involves unquestioned acceptance of norms
rarely the rejection of norms
Training & performance have become medicalized

26. Using Functionalist Theory to Define Deviance
Deviance involves a rejecting of accepted goals
Or rejecting the means of achieving goals in society
Conformity is equated with morality
Deviance is caused by faulty socialization
By inconsistencies in the social system
Deviance is controlled by getting tough
By enforcing more rules more strictly

27. Using Conflict Theory to Define Deviance
Deviance involves behavior that interferes with the interests of those with economic power
The behavior of those who lack power is more likely to be labeled as deviant
Those who deviate often are victims of exploitation in a system characterized by inequalities
The problem of deviance will be minimal when power is equally distributed in society

28. Using Interactionist & Critical Theories to Define Deviance
Most deviance in sports is not due to the moral bankruptcy of athletes
Much deviance in sports involves over conformity to established norms in sports
Sport deviance must be understood in terms of the normative context of sport cultures and the emphasis on “the sport ethic”

29. Normally Accepted Range of Behavior
Deviant Under- Conformity
Normally Accepted Range of Behavior
Deviant Over- Conformity
Deviance based on unquestioned acceptance of norms
Deviance based on ignoring or rejecting norms

30. The Sport Ethic
A cluster of norms that represent the accepted criteria for defining what it means to be an athlete.

31. Four Norms of the Sport Ethic
An athlete makes sacrifices for “the game”
An athlete strives for distinction
An athlete accepts risks and plays through pain
An athlete accepts no limits in the pursuit of possibilities

32. Why Do Athletes Engage in Deviant Over- Conformity?
Two reasons for over-conformity:
Sports are so exhilarating and thrilling that athletes want to play, and they will do almost anything to continue to do so
Being selected by coaches and managers is more likely when athletes over conform to the sport ethic

33. Athletes Most Likely to Over- Conform to the Sport Ethic
Those who have low self-esteem
Eager to be accepted by their peers
Willing to sacrifices what they think others want them to
Those who see achievements in sport as their only way to get ahead
make a name
become important in the world

34. Deviant Over-Conformity and Group Dynamics
Following the Norms of the Sport Ethic
Special Bonds Among Athletes
Hubris (arrogance)

35. Social Processes in Elite Power & Performance Sports
Bond athletes in ways that normalize over conformity to the sport ethic
Separate athletes from the rest to inspire awe and admiration among community members
Lead athletes to develop HUBRIS (a sense of arrogance, separateness, and superiority)

36. Hypotheses About Deviance Among Athletes
Deviance becomes more likely when
Social bonds normalize risk taking
Athletes are separated from the rest of the community
Athletes develop extreme degrees of hubris
When people in the community see athletes as being special

37. Controlling Deviant Over-Conformity in Sports
Four ways to control deviant over-conformity:
Learn to identify the forms and dynamics of over-conformity among athletes
Raise critical questions about the meaning, organization, and purpose of sports
Create norms in sports that discourage over- conformity to the sport ethic
Help athletes to learn to strike a balance between accepting and questioning rules and norms in their sports

38. Research on Deviance Among Athletes
On the Field Deviance
Cheating, dirty play, fighting, & violence are less common today than in the past
This historical finding contradicts popular perceptions.
Many people think deviance is more common today
More rules than ever before
Expectations for conformity are greater.

39. Research on Deviance Among Athletes
Off the Field Deviance
Athletes do not have higher delinquency rates
Data on academic cheating is inconclusive
Athletes have higher rates of alcohol use
Felony rates among adult athletes do not seem to be out of control
BUT they do constitute a problem (see Ch. 7)

40. Is Sport Participation a Cure for Deviant Behavior?
Research suggests that organized sport might
reduce deviance if:
A philosophy of nonviolence
Respect for self and others
The importance of fitness and control over self
Confidence in physical skills
A sense of responsibility

41. DON’T FORGET Coaches Parents Spectators Administrators Team owners
Athletes are not the only ones in sports who engage in deviant behavior. Think of other examples involving:
Coaches
Parents
Spectators
Administrators
Team owners
Agents

42. Using Performance Enhancing Substances in Sports
The use of performance enhancing substances occurs regularly in high performance sports
Many cases of usage constitute a form of deviant over conformity
Such substances will be used as long as athletes believe they will enhance performance

44. Defining and Banning Performance Enhancing Substances
Defining what constitutes a “performance enhancing substance” is difficult
Defining what is natural or artificial is difficult
Defining what is fair when it comes to the use of science, medicine, & technology in sports is difficult
Determining what is dangerous to health is difficult
Studying and testing for substances is constrained by ethical and legal factors

45. Eight Reasons Why Substance Use So Prevalent Today?
The high stakes in sports have fueled research and development of substances
Fascination with the use of technology to push human limits
The rationalization of the body
Heavy emphasis on self-medication
Changing sexual relations

46. Why Is Substance Use So Prevalent Today?
The organization of power and performance sports (must win to continue to play)
Coaches, sponsors, administrators, and fans clearly encourage most forms of deviant over-conformity
The social structure of elite sports (control over body and conformity to demands of coaches)

47. Arguments Against Testing
Testing will never be able to identify all substances athletes use to enhance performance
Athletes and substance manufacturers can stay one step ahead of the testers
Mandatory testing, testing without cause, and using blood and tissue violates ideas about rights to privacy in many cultures

48. Arguments for Testing
To be meaningful, sport performances must involve natural abilities
Drug use destroys the basis for competition by subverting fairness
Drug use threatens the health and well-being of athletes
Drug use is immoral and must be stopped

49. Controlling Substance Use: Where to Start (I)
Critically examine the hypocrisy in elite sports
Establish rules indicating that risks to health are undesirable and unnecessary in sports
Establish rules stating that injured athletes must be independently certified as “well” before they may play
Educate young athletes to define courage and discipline in ways that promote health

50. Controlling Substance Use: Where to Start (II)
Establish a code of ethics for sport scientists
Make drug education part of deviance and health education
Create norms regulating use of technology
Critically examine values and norms in sports
Redefine meaning of achievement
Teach athletes to think critically
Provide accurate and current information to parents, coaches, and athletes

51. Violence in Sports: How Does It Affect Our Lives?

52. Definition of Violence
The use of excessive force that causes or has the potential to cause harm or destruction
Violence is not always illegal or disapproved
It may be praised and lauded as necessary
When violence involves widespread rejection of norms, it may signal anarchy
When violence involves extreme over-conformity to norms, it may signal fascism

53. Definition of Aggression
Verbal or physical behavior grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another person
Aggression is not the same as assertiveness, competitiveness, or trying hard
Intimidation refers to words, gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression

54. Violence in Sports History
Figurational research shows that violence was more severe in the past
On the field & off the field
Rates of sports violence have not automatically increased over time
Violence in sports remains a crucial social issue today
Sports violence can serve to reproduce an ideology of male privilege

55. Types of On-the-field Violence
Brutal body contact
Hits, Tackles, Blocks, or any forceful body contact
Borderline violence
Brush Back Pitch, Elbow, the Bump in running, Fight in hockey, or any force with the intent to cause bodily harm
Quasi-criminal violence
Cheap Shot, Late Hits, or any use of force that violates the rules
Criminal violence
Physical Assault that usually brings criminal charges

56. Violence As Deviant Over Conformity to the Sport Ethic (I)
Coaches may expect players to use violence
Violence often attracts media attention
Players may not like violence, even though most accept it as part of the game
Quasi and criminal violence are routinely rejected by athletes and spectators

57. Violence As Deviant Over- Conformity to the Sport Ethic (II)
Violence may be related to insecurities in high performance sports
Expressions of violence are related to gender, but not limited to men
Physicality creates drama and excitement, strong emotions, and special bonds among all athletes, male and female

58. Commercialization and Violence
Some athletes are paid to do violence
Commercialization and money expand the visibility of violence in sports, and violent discourse in and about sports
Violence is not caused by TV and money – it existed long before TV coverage and big salaries

59. Violence and Masculinity
Violence is grounded in general cultural norms
Violence in sports is not limited to men
Playing power and performance sports often are ways to prove masculinity

60. Violence, Masculinity, Social Class, & Race
Among men from low-income backgrounds, violence may be a tool to bring respect
Black men may use violence to exploit white stereotypes

61. Violence Is Institutionalized in Some Sports
In non-contact sports, violence is usually limited to using violent images in talk
In contact men’s sports, players learn to use violence as a strategy
Enforcers & goons are paid to do violence
In women’s contact sports, violence may be used as a strategy, but not to prove femininity

62. Pain and Injury As the Price of Violence
A popular paradox in today’s sports: People accept violence while being concerned about injuries caused by violence
Disabling injuries caused by violence in some sports are serious problems
Dominant ideas about masculinity are related to high injury rates in men’s sports

63. Controlling On-the-field Violence
Brutal body contact is the most difficult form of violence to control
Most injuries occur on “legal hits”
The most effective strategies might involve:
Suspensions for players
Fines for team owners

64. Off-the-field Violence
Carryover data are inconclusive
Assault and sexual assault rates among male, heterosexual athletes are a serious problem
These behaviors are a serious problem in society as a whole
Debates about whether rates are higher among athletes distract attention from the problem of violence in culture

65. Hypotheses About Male Athletes’ Violence Against Women
Violence is related to
Support from fellow athletes for using physical force as a strategy
Perceived cultural support for domination as a basis for status & identity among men
Deviant over-conformity to the norms of the sport ethic

66. Hypotheses About Male Athletes’ Violence Against Women
Violence is related to
Support for the belief that women constitute “groupies” in sport worlds
Collective HUBRIS and the notion that outsiders do not deserve respect
Institutional support for elite athletes regardless of behavior
Institutional failures to hold athletes accountable for deviance

67. Learning to Control Violence in Sports
Control may be learned if
The social world formed around a sport promotes a mindset & norms emphasizing:
Non-violence
Self-control
Respect for self and others
Physical fitness
Patience

68. Violence Is Most Likely When:
Sports are organized in ways that
Produce HUBRIS
Separate athletes from the community
Encourage athletes to think that others do not deserve their respect

69. Violence in Sports & Gender Ideology
Doing violence in sports reproduces the belief that “men are superior to women”
Power & performance sports, when they encourage violence, emphasize difference between men and women
Sports violence reproduces an ideology of male entitlement

70. Violence Among Spectators
No data on how watching sports may influence violence in everyday relationships
Spectators at non-contact sports have low rates of violence
Spectators at contact sports have rates of violence that constitute a problem in need of analysis and control
Rates today are lower than rates in the past

71. Celebratory Violence
This form of violence has not been studied systematically by scholars in the sociology of sport

73. General Factors Related to Violence at Sport Events
Action in the sport event itself
Crowd dynamics & the situation in which spectators watch the event
Historical, social economic, & political context in which the event is planned and played

74. Crowd Dynamics & Situational Factors
Crowd size
Composition of crowd
Meaning and importance of event
History of relationship between teams
Crowd control strategies at event
Alcohol consumption by spectators
Location of event
Motivations for attending the event
Importance of teams as sources of identity for spectators

75. Controlling Crowd Violence
Be aware of the following factors:
Perceived violence on the field is positively related to crowd violence
Crowd dynamics and conditions
Historical, social, & political issues underlying spectator orientations