1. Structural support and movement
Chapter 32

2. How do animals move? All animals ______________.
Sometimes, they are capable of locomotion: _______________ __________________________________________________
As adults, even sessile animals (_________________________) usually _________________________.
Mechanisms of locomotion: ______through water; ____through air; _____, _____, or _______along surfaces; or ________through soil and sediments.
The same physical law governs all movement: For every action, there is an _________________________.
For an animal to move in one direction, it must exert a force in the ______________direction. Ex. Jet propulsion by squids

4. How do animals move?
_______and __________increase the amount of energy an animal must expend to move
Some aquatic animals have a ____________________ that reduces the effects of friction
Snails reduce friction by secreting a lubricating _____from their large foot
Animals that walk or run minimize friction’s effects by ________________ __________ in contact with the ground
Elevating the body above the ground and having only some feet contact the ground at any given time minimizes the effects of friction

5. How do animals move?
___________________plays a locomotive role in many animals
Example: kangaroos have elastic material in their hind legs that facilitate hopping
To fly, an animal must overcome ____________to become and stay airborne, and must also generate a force to propel itself ______________
Wing _______________is the key to flight
The difference in air velocity across the two surfaces (top and bottom) of a wing creates lift, an upward force, that opposes gravity

6. What is a skeleton?
Muscles bring about movement by interacting with a _________
Skeletons include:
__________________________________
___________________________________

7. Invertebrate Skeletons
Hydrostatic skeleton: _________________________________ ____________________________
____________________________
Exoskeleton: ________________________________________ ___________
Endoskeleton: _______________________ __________________________________

8. The Vertebrate Endoskeleton
All vertebrates have endoskeletons: ______________________ __________________________________________________
The term “vertebrate” refers to the vertebral column (________)
_______________, ________________________, __________________
Bony segments called _____________make up the backbone
_______________________of cartilage between vertebrae act as shock absorbers

12. What are the functions of bone?
Bone structure and function
Bone formation and turnover
Joints: Where bones meet

13. Bone structure and function
___________bones in an adult human’s skeleton
They range in size from ___________bones as small as a grain of rice to the massive _______, which weighs about a kilogram.
The femur and other bones of the arms and legs are ________.
The ribs, the sternum, and most bones of the skull are ________.
Still other bones, such as the carpals in the wrists, are _____and roughly _____________-ish in shape.

14. Bone structure and function
Each bone is wrapped in a dense ___________________that has _________and ______________running through it.
Bone tissue consists of ____________in a secreted extracellular matrix .
The matrix is mostly ___________, a fibrous protein, hardened by _____________and _______________ions.
A long bone such as a femur includes two types of bone tissue, _______________and ____________________.

15. Human femur

16. Bone structure and function
Compact bone: ___________; makes up the shaft of long bones
Spongy bone: ___________________with many internal spaces
Red marrow: _____________________
Yellow marrow: ___________________

18. Bone formation and turnover
Bone mass increases until about _____years of age
Later in life, bone mass _____________________
Bone remodeling occurs throughout life, to repair _________________________caused by normal movement
Parathyroid hormone, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone alter _______________________
Osteoporosis: _______________________________________ __________________________________________________

19. Joints: Where bones meet
A joint is an area __________________________________.
Connective tissue holds bones securely in place at ___________ such as those between _____________________.

20. Joints: Where bones meet
Pads or disks of cartilage connect bones at _______________, forming a flexible connection that allows a bit of movement. Cartilaginous joints connect __________ to one another and connect some ribs to the ______________.

21. Joints: Where bones meet
Joints of the ____, __________, ________, ________, and ______are _____________, the most common type of joint. In a synovial joint, the ends of bones are covered with ___________ and enclosed in a _________________. Cords of dense connective tissue called __________ hold the bones of a synovial joint in place

24. Synovial joints

25. What are the functions of skeletal muscles?
Skeletal muscles: function in intentional ____________, ______, and ___________________
Muscles can ________but cannot _______. To achieve the greatest range of motion, muscles work in ________, with the action of one muscle reversing action of another.
Tendon: ___________________________________________ __________________________________________________
Sphincter: _______________in a tubular organ or at a body opening (_______, _______, ___________)

26. What are the components of skeletal muscle?
A muscle is enclosed within a sheath of ______________________
This tissue extends beyond the muscle as a ___________. Additional connective tissue encloses bundles of _______________
It contains many ______, which are positioned at its outer edges. The fiber also contains large numbers of __________, _______________ __________________. The bulk of the muscle fiber’s interior is filled with thousands of threadlike __________________
A myofibril consists of many identical ______________, called ________________, attached end to end.
Each end of a sarcomere is delineated by a Z line, a mesh of cytoskeletal elements that attach the sarcomere to its neighbors.
Sarcomere consists of two filaments: __________and ____________

28. What controls muscle contraction?
Signals from ___________________ excite a motor neuron in the spinal cord
The motor neuron communicates with __________muscle via the release of acetylcholine (ACh)
Calcium is released from the __________________ , (a specialized endoplasmic reticulum that wraps around myofibrils and stores calcium ions.) which clears myosin binding sites on actin filaments
____________________________

29. What controls muscle contraction?
Motor unit: _________________________________________ __________________________________________________
Muscle tension (_________________________________________________): depends on the number of contracting muscle fibers

30. How do muscles fuel their contractions?
Energy-releasing pathways
Types of muscle fibres

31. Energy releasing pathways (3)
Muscles tap into their store of _______________________, a compound that can transfer a phosphate to ADP to form _____
Most of the ATP used by a muscle during prolonged, moderate activity is produced by ____________________. Glucose derived from glycogen stored in the muscle fuels this pathway for 5-10 minutes of contractions. Then, glucose and fatty acids delivered by the blood are broken down. Fatty acids are the main fuel for activities that last more than 30min.
_______________________is the third source of ATP. Some pyruvate is converted to lactate by fermentation even in resting muscle, but the rate of fermentation increases during exercise. This pathway produces ATP less efficiently than aerobic respiration, but unlike aerobic respiration, it operates even when the oxygen level in a muscle is low.

32. Types of muscle fibres
Red fibers: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Bright red color is due to myoglobin (___________________________)
Fast fibers: ________________________________________________
White fibers: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Have no ______________
Fast or slow fibers