1. Chapter 10: Cell Growth and Division

2. Cell Growth
When an organism grows, the number of cells increase but the size of each cell remains small.

3. Limits to cell growth
DNA “overload”: The larger a cell becomes, the more demands the cell places on its DNA. a.     DNA stores the information that controls how a cell functions b.     When a cell is small, DNA can meet the cells needs c. When a cell is large, it still has only one copy of DNA so it is more difficult for the cell to perform its function

4. Limits to cell growth
2. Exchanging materials: In addition, large cells have more trouble moving substances across the cell membrane. a.     If a cell is too large, it is difficult to get enough oxygen and nutrients in and waste products out b. This is why cells do NOT grow much larger even if the organism does grow large

5. Division of the Cell
Before a cell gets too large, it will divide to form two “daughter” cells
Before a cell divides, it makes a copy of its DNA for each daughter cell

6. Chapter 10-2: Cell Division
Cell division in eukaryotes is more complex than in prokaryotes.
There are two stages of eukaryotic cell division
Mitosis: Division of the cell nucleus
Cytokinesis: Division of the cell cytoplasm
Unicellular organisms reproduce asexually by mitosis
a. The daughter cells are identical to the parents cells
4. Mitosis is how a multicellular organism grows and develops

7. Chromosomes Chromosomes are made of condensed chromatin.
Chromatin consists of DNA and the proteins it is wrapped around.
The cells of every organism have a specific number of chromosomes (humans have 46 chromosomes).

8. 3. Chromosomes are only visible during cell division, when they are condensed. The rest of the time the chromatin is spread throughout the nucleus.
Before cell division, each chromosome is replicated (meaning copied). a. When a chromosome is replicated, it consists of two identical “sister” chromatids. b. When a cell divides the chromatids separate, and one goes to each of the two new cells.
c. Sister chromatids are attached to
each other at the spot called the
centromere.

9. The Cell Cycle
When a cell is NOT dividing, it is said to be in interphase.
The series of events that a cell goes through as it grows and divides is called the cell cycle.

10. Events of the cell cycle
Interphase, when the cell is NOT dividing, has three phases: G1, S, and G2.
1.   G1 phase: period of activity in which cells do most of their growing.
a.     Cells increase in size
b.     Cells synthesize (make) new proteins and organelles
2.   S phase: DNA (chromosomes) is replicated
3. G2: organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced

12. M phase is the phase of cell division. This includes:
1. Mitosis, the division of the cell nucleus, which is made up of four segments including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
2. Cytokinesis, or the division of cytoplasm.
Stop at 1 minute

13. M phase
G2 phase
S phase
G1 phase

14. Mitosis
There are four phases in mitosis:
1.     Prophase
a. Longest phase in mitosis (take % of total time mitosis requires) b.     Chromosomes become visible because they are condensed

15. e. Nuclear envelope breaks down
c.    Centrioles become visible on opposite sides of the nucleus
i. The centrioles help organize the spindle, a structure made of microtubules that helps separate the chromosomes
ii. Chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers near the centromere
iii.      Plant cells to not have centrioles but do have mitotic spindles
d.     Nucleolus disappears
e.    Nuclear envelope breaks down

17. 2. Metaphase. a. Chromosomes line up in the center of. the cell. b
2. Metaphase a.     Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell b. Microtubules connect to the centromeres

18. 3. Anaphase
a.     Centomeres split and the sister chromatids separate b.     The sister chromatids become individual chromosomes
c.      Chromosomes move and separate into two groups
near the spindle d. Anaphase ends when the chromosomes stop moving

19. 4. Telophase
a. Chromosomes change form being condensed to dispersed b. A nuclear envelope forms around each cluster of chromosomes c.   Spindle breaks apart d. Nucleolus is visible in each daughter nucleus
Telophase in the midbodies of two daughter cells

20. Cytokinesis Mitosis occurs within the cytoplasm of one cell.
Cell division is complete when the cytoplasm divides.
In plants, a structure called the cell plate forms between the two daughter nuclei. The cell plate develops into a cell membrane and cell wall.

21. Cytokinesis
In animal cells, the cell membrane is drawn inward until the cytoplasm is pinched into two equal parts. Each part has a nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles.
The cleavage of daughter cells is almost complete; this is visualized by microtubule staining

23. Asexual Reproduction Is one cell reproducing by itself Two types:
Binary Fission: organism replicates its DNA and divides in half, producing two identical daughter cells
Example: bacteria
Budding: asexual process by which yeasts increase in number

24. Interphase Cytokinesis Telophase
Centrioles
Chromatin
Interphase
Nuclear envelope
Cytokinesis
Nuclear envelope reforming
Telophase
Anaphase
Individual chromosomes
Metaphase
Centriole
Spindle
Chromosomes (paired chromatids)
Prophase
Centromere
Spindle forming

26. Chapter 10-3: Regulating the Cell Cycle
Different cell types divide at different rates.
Examples:
Muscle cells and nerve cells do not divide once they have developed.
Skin cells and cells in the bone marrow that make blood cells divide rapidly.

27. Controls on cell division
Cell growth and cell division can be turned on and off.
When you are injured your cells divide rapidly to repair the injury. When the injury has healed, the cells stop dividing.
Cyclins regulate cell growth (add to notes)

28. Uncontrolled cell growth
When cells in your body CANNOT control cell growth and division, cancer may form.
1. Cancer cells cannot respond to the signals that regulate the division of cells.
2. When cancer cells have been dividing uncontrollably, tumors form. 3. Tumors can damage surrounding tissue. 4. Cells from tumors can break free and travel to other parts of the body, forming new tumors.

29. There are several reasons that cells may lose the ability to control growth.
Examples:
1. smoking
2. radiation exposure
3. viral infection
Scientists who study cancer are researching how cells divide.

30. Chapter 11-4: Meiosis

31. Chromosomes
You have 23 different pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes.
One chromosome in each pair came from your mother and one from your father.

33. Each chromosome in a pair is said to be homologous, meaning that the chromosome from the father has a corresponding chromosome from the mother.

34. Cells that contain both sets of homologous chromosomes are called diploid.
All of your cells except the sex cells (sperm and eggs; also called gametes) are diploid. Gametes are haploid, meaning they contain only one copy of each chromosome.
When one sperm and one egg combine their DNA, there are two versions of each chromosome.

35. haploid
haploid
diploid

36. We use “N” to represent the haploid number of chromosomes and “2N” to represent the diploid number of chromosomes.
1. For humans, the haploid number is We write this as N = 23. The diploid number is 46, which we write as 2N = 46.
2. In fruit flies, N = 4 and 2N = 8.

37. Meiosis
Meiosis is the process that divides one diploid (2N) cell to form four haploid (N) cells.
This process is a reductional division because the number of chromosomes per cell are cut in half.
Meiosis is how gametes are formed.

38. There are two divisions that occur in meiosis: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
1. Before meiosis I begins, cells go through Interphase I.
2. This involves DNA replication, forming a duplicate copy of each chromosome.
3. Each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids.
centrioles
Nucleus with duplicated DNA that is not condensed.
cell

39. Meiosis I is similar to mitosis. a. Prophase I:
i.      Centrioles are visible on opposite sides of the nucleus
ii.      Nucleolus disappears
iii.      Nuclear envelope breaks down
spindle
centrioles
DNA condensed as chromosomes

40. Iv iv. Homologous chromosomes pair
1. When a pair of chromosomes aligns a tetrad is formed.
2.      When chromosomes form a tetrad, they exchange portions of their chromatids in a process called crossing-over.
3. Crossing-over produces new combinations of DNA.
tetrad

41. b.     Metaphase I:
i.      Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes at the centromere
spindle
centromere
centrioles
chromosomes (DNA)

42. c.     Anaphase I:
i. Spindle fibers pull the homologous chromosomes toward opposite ends of the cell.
ii. Chromosomes move and separate into two groups near the spindle
iii. Anaphase ends when the chromosomes stop moving
spindle
chromosomes
(DNA)
centrioles

43. d. Telophase I e. Cytokinesis i. Cytoplasm divides
i.      Nuclear membranes form around chromosomes
ii.      Daughter nuclei form
e. Cytokinesis
i. Cytoplasm divides
Nucleus
centrioles
chromosomes
(DNA)
Nucleus

44. Meiosis I produces two haploid (N) daughter cells that have only one copy of each chromosome. (reductional division) Each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids.

45. Meiosis II After Meiosis I, cells enter Meiosis II.
No DNA replication occurs between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
Meiosis II separates the sister chromatids.

46. i. Centrioles are visible on opposite sides of the nucleus
a.     Prophase II:
i. Centrioles are visible on opposite sides of the nucleus
ii. Nucleolus disappears
iii. Nuclear envelope breaks down
chromosome

47. i. Chromosomes align like they do in mitosis
b.     Metaphase II:
i. Chromosomes align like they do in mitosis
ii. Chromosomes are attached to the spindle at the centromere.
centrioles
spindle
chromosome

48. Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
Anaphase II:
Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite ends of the cell.
centrioles
spindle
chromosome

49. f. Meiosis II produces four haploid (N) daughter cells
d.     Telophase II:
i. Nuclear membranes form around chromosomes
ii. Daughter nuclei form
e.     Cytokinesis:
i. Division of the cytoplasm
f.     Meiosis II produces four haploid (N) daughter cells
centrioles
nucleus
chromosome

50. Gamete formation
In male animals, the haploid gametes are called sperm.
In female animals, the haploid gametes are called eggs.

51. Comparing mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid (2N) cells. Mitosis allows an organism’s body to grow and to replace cells. In organisms that reproduce asexually, new organisms are produced by mitosis.
Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid (N) cells. Meiosis produces gametes for use in sexual reproduction.

52. Parts of a Chromosome Chromatid Centromere p (short) arm q (long) arm5
Chromatid
Centromere
p (short) arm
q (long) arm
Telomeres (protects the end of the chromosome and keeps it from fusing with other chromosomes)

53. Telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome. Protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes. The ends of the chromosome
Centromere – The primary constriction of the chromosome. The centromere also divides the chromosome into a short arm (p) and a long arm (q). All chromosomes have a short arm and a long arm
Chromatid – A single molecule of DNA

54. Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes (also called homologs or homologues) are chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, with genes for the same characteristics at corresponding loci (space or place). One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's mother; the other from the organism's father. They are usually not identical, but carry the same type of information.

55. Centromere location

56. Stem Cells

57. What are stem cells?
Stem cells are unspecialized cells that have the potential to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types.

58. Stem Cell Guy

59. Embryonic Stem Cells
Embryonic stem cells have potential to differentiate into any type of cell.
This occurs at fertilization and it has not developed features characteristic of the human body.
They must be harvested from developing embryos very early!

60. Totipotent
Totipotency is the ability of a single cell to divide and produce all the differentiated cells in an organism, including extraembryonic tissues

61. Adult Stem Cells
Stem cells present in already developed human tissues.
These stem cells can only differentiate into a limited range of cell types.

62. Multipotent
Multipotent  have the potential to give rise to cells from multiple, but a limited number of lineages.
— a blood stem cell that can develop into several types of blood cells, but cannot develop into brain or other types of cells.

63. Info on Stem Cells