1. Memory
Chapter 7

2. 1. Memory
Memory is defined as the retention of information or experience over time according to psychologist.
Memory occurs through 3 processes:
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

3. 2. Memory Encoding The first step in memory is encoding.
Encoding is taking the information in.
Like reading a book, listening to a lecture, having a conversation
Some information gets stored in our memory almost automatically, while others require more effort.
Like paying attention, processing deeply, elaborating, and using mental imagery.

4. 2. Memory Encoding Attention
Selective attention- we focus on specific aspects of experience while ignoring others
Divided attention- concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
Sustained or vigilance attention- maintaining attention to something specific for a long period of time

5. 2. Memory Encoding Levels of Processing
This is a continuum of memory processing.
Shallow
Intermediate
Deep
Deeper processing produces better memory
Elaboration- the different connections we make around a stimulus at any given level of memory

6. 3. Memory Storage
Memory needs to be stored properly after it is encoded.
Storage is how we retain information over time and how it’s represented in memory
According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory memory storage involves 3 separate systems:
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory

7. 3. Memory Storage
Sensory memory holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, or other senses.
Echoic (auditory) memory is based on hearing and last for several seconds
Iconic (visual) memory is based on sight, images, what you see and last about ¼ of a second

8. 3. Memory Storage
Short-term memory is a limited capacity storage system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds unless other strategies are used to retain it longer.
In short term memory what we remember is usually in the range of
7 (+/-) 2 memory span
Chunking is grouping information that exceeds the 7 (+/-) 2 memory span into. It makes large amounts of information more manageable.
Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of information. Repeating the words over and over

9. 3. Memory Storage
Working memory is an active memory system unlike STM.
Short term memory just stores information until it is moved to long term memory.
Working memory allows us to hold information temporarily as we perform cognitive task, such as doing a math problem
Most adults can only remember 4 (+/-) 1, only 3 to 5 chunks, compared to the 5 to 9 chunks in STM.

10. 3. Memory Storage
Long-term memory is mostly a permanent type of memory that stores huge amount of information for a long period of time.
Our brains storage capacity is basically unlimited, and even though we forget things we can hold several billion times more information than a large computer.
LTM is divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit memory.
Explicit has to do with remembering who, what, where, when, and why.
Implicit memory is remembering the how

11. 3. Memory Storage
Explicit (Declarative) Memory is the conscious recollection of information such as specific facts and events and information that can be verbally communicated.
It includes episodic and semantic memory.
Episodic memory is essentially about the episodes or stories we collect in our lives; life’s happenings.
Semantic memory pertains to our general knowledge about the world like meanings of words, famous people, playing chess.

12. 3. Memory Storage
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory is memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without conscious recollection of that experience.
Like playing sports, the physical aspect of text messaging, vacuuming, or a song you begin singing but were not even aware you were listening
Implicit memory includes procedural, classic conditioning and priming.

13. 3. Memory Storage
Procedural memory involves memory for skills like typing, driving a car, riding a bike.
Classical conditioning remember is automatic learning of associations between stimuli.
Ex: you may start to like a person in your favorite class, because they are around when you are feeling good

14. Schemas
A schema is a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information.
Schemas can also be at work when we recall information.
Schema theory holds LTM is not very exact because we tend to find the exact memory we want whether it is exact or not.
We reconstruct the memory we want by filling in the gaps of our fragmented memories.
This is the problem with the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.
Eyewitness testimony can be distorted with bias, and inaccuracy of memory (errors, faulty).

15. 4. Memory Retrieval
Retrieval is when the information that was retained in memory comes out of storage.
This process is similar to how we locate and check out books at an actual library.
Serial position effect is better recalling items at the beginning and end of a list than the middle. (Primacy & recency)
Recall is a memory task where we remember previously learned information like an essay test.
Recognition is a memory task in which we only have to identify like a multiple choice test.

16. 4. Memory Retrieval
Flashbulb memory are memories that include emotionally significant events, like traumatic events, or special occasions (weddings, birth)
Repression is a defense mechanism in which a person is so traumatized by an event that they forget and forget that they forgot.
Motivated forgetting – forgetting because something was so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering would be intolerable

17. 5. Forgetting
Encoding failure is when information was not stored properly in long term memory, so we assume we forgot the information.
Retrieval failure include problems with information in storage, effects of time, personal reasons for remembering or forgetting, and our brain’s condition.

18. Interference Theory
Interference theory – we forget because other information gets in the way of what we want to remember
Proactive interference is when situations learned earlier disrupts information you learned later
Ex: 10 years ago you had a friend named Prudence, you met Patience last night, you may find yourself calling Patience, Prudence
Retroactive interference is when new information is disrupted by material learned earlier

19. Decay Theory
Decay theory is memories fading over time, but it does not explain forgetting because under the right circumstances we can recover memories that we seem to have forgotten.

20. Study Tips from the Science of Memory
Organization is the first step in improving academic performance, make sure the information you are studying is accurate and well organized.
Elaboration is the different connections we make to remember like self-referencing (relating material to our own experiences).
Visual Imagery- mental pictures

21. Study Tips from the Science of Memory
Mnemonics- strategies that can improve memory
Overlearning- continuing to study material after you think you already know them
Massed practice- time spent learning is grouped into one long session, better known as cramming
Spaced (distributed) practice- learning in short practice sessions with rest periods