1. high performance work force
Unit 8
Developing
high performance work force
through
employee motivation

2. Unit 8
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
Understand the meaning of motivation;
Appreciate the different employee needs and expectations;
Understand the impact of frustration induced behaviour;
Explain the basic concepts of and different approaches to motivation; and
Understand the more common motivation theories (Maslow Hierarchy of
Needs Theory, Mc Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, Alderfer’s ERG Theory,
Herzberg’s Hygiene Motivator Theory, McClelland’s Achievement Theory,
Expectancy Theories, Adams’s Equity Theory and Locke’s Goal Setting
Theory. 2

3. Unit 8
Introduction
The relationship between the organisation and its members is governed by what motivates them to work and the fulfillment they derive from it. …. The manager must understand the nature of human behaviour and how best to motivate staff so that they work willingly and effectively.
Laurie Mullins
University of Portsmouth 6 3

4. Unit What is Motivation ? 8
The willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organisational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need
(Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications; 7th Edition; Prentice Hall International; 1996 4 4

5. (Behaviour or actions)
Unit 8
Simplified Motivational Model
Needs or
expectations
Driving force
(Behaviour or actions)
Desired
Goals
results in
to achieve
Fulfilment
which provides
feedback
(Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications; 7th Edition; Prentice Hall International; 1996 5 5

6. Keys to Motivating employees
Unit 8
Keys to Motivating employees
Understanding needs and expectations at work
Understanding negative behaviour (frustration)
and its impact
Understanding the different approaches to
motivation 6 6

7. Categorisation of Motivation
Unit 8
Categorisation of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
(psychological rewards)
Issues such as opportunity to use one’s ability, positive recognition, sense of challenge, receiving appreciation, being treated in a caring manner, etc
Within control of
individual managers
Extrinsic Motivation
(tangible rewards)
Issues such as salary, benefits,
security, promotion, contract of
service, work environment,
conditions of work, etc
Largely outside control of
individual managers 7 7

8. Needs and Expectations at Work
Unit 8
Needs and Expectations at Work
Instrumental orientation
(concerned with other things)
Economic rewards
such as Pay, fringe benefits,
material goods, pension, security
etc
Personal orientation
(concerned with oneself)
Intrinsic satisfaction
Derived from nature of work, interest in
Job, personal growth and
development
Relational orientation
(concerned with other people)
Social Relationships
Issues such as friendship, desire
for affiliation, status, dependency,
group working, etc 8 8

9. Basic Frustration Model
Unit 8
Basic Frustration Model
Desired goals
Needs or
expectations
Barrier or
Blockage
Constructive
behaviours
Problem solving
(Removal of barrier)
Restructuring
Alternative goal
(Compromise)
Frustration
Regression
Fixation
Withdrawal
Aggression 6 9

10. Factors Affecting Frustration
Unit 8
Factors Affecting Frustration
Level and potency of need
(Eg Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Degree of attachment to the particular goal
Strength of motivation
Perceived nature of barrier or blocking agent
Personality characteristics of the individual 6 10

11. Frustration Induced behaviour – Workplace Examples (1)
Unit 8
Frustration Induced behaviour – Workplace Examples (1)
Aggression
Target - Perceived source of barrier
Acts - Physical/ Verbal attack on supervisor, verbal abusive language, destruction of equipment / document, Malicious
gossip against superior
Displaced Agression
Target - Not source of barrier but anyone regarded as weak
Acts - Picking argument with colleagues, short tempered with
subordinates
Regression
Reverting to childish or primitive form of behaviour such as crying, sulking, throwing tantrums 6 11

12. Frustration Induced behaviour – Workplace Examples (2)
Unit 8
Frustration Induced behaviour – Workplace Examples (2)
Fixation
Persisting in a form of behaviour that has no adaptive value and continuing to repeat actions that have no positive value such as inability to accept change or new idas, repeatedly trying a machine that does not work, or applying for promotion even though not qualified
Withdrawal
Giving up or resignation such as arriving late at work or leaving early, sickness and absenteeism, refusal to accept responsibility, avoiding decision making, passing work to colleagues 6 12

13. Frustration Reducing Techniques
Unit 8
Frustration Reducing Techniques
Your role as a Manager is to reduce frustration vide:-
Effective recruitment and selection
Training and Development
Job design and work organisation
Equitable personnel policies
Recognition and rewards
Effective communication
Participative style of management
Understanding the individual’s perception
of the situation 6 13

14. Changing concepts of Motivation
Unit 8
Changing concepts of Motivation
Economic Needs Motivation
Based on the works of Taylor who believed that workers would be motivated by
obtaining the highest possible wages by working in the most efficient manner
Social concept of motivation
Based on the beliefs of human relations writers who argue that workers go to work to
satisfy not only the need for money but a range of different needs and thus is concerned
with the interactions between both psychological factors and social factors, needs and
demands of people and structural and technical requirements of organisation.
Concept of Self – Actualisation
Based on the Hawthorne experiments, argues that greater attention must be paid to the
content and meaning of work to make it more satisfying
Complex- person concept of motivation
Takes the view that there are a large number of variables that influence organisational
performance and that managers must vary their behaviour according to the situation and
different needs of employees 14 14

15. Overview of main motivation theories
Unit 8
Overview of main motivation theories
Early ideas on work motivation
Scientific management and the work of F W Taylor
Hawthorne experiments and Human Relations Approach
Content Theories (What Motivates)
Emphasis on what motivates individuals
* Maslow * Alderfer * Herzberg * McClelland
Process Theories (How it motivates)
Emphasis on the actual process of motivation
* Expectancy Theories * Equity Theory * Goal Theory * Attribution Theory 15 15

16. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1)
Unit 8
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1)
Original theory published in 1943
Argues that people are wanting beings, always want more and
what they want depends on what they have
Argues that need are arranged in series of level or hierarchy of
importance, with lower level needs (physiological and Safety)
being satisfied externally and the higher level needs being
satisfied internally
Argues that when one need becomes substantially satisfied, the
next need becomes dominant
Workplace impact: First find out what level employee is in and
focus on satisfying that or higher need 16 16

17. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (2)
Unit 8
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (2)
Internal esteem factors such as self-
respect, autonomy, and achievement and
external esteem factors such as status,
recognition and attention
Drive to become what one is
capable of becoming: includes
growth, achieving one’s potential
and self-fulfilment
Physiological
SELF
ACTUALISATION
Affection, belongingness,
acceptance and friendship
Security and protection
from physical and
emotional harm, freedom
from pain
ESTEEM
LOVE / SOCIAL
SAFETY
PHYSIOLOGICAL
Satisfaction of hunger and thirst, shelter, sensory pleasures (sex) and other bodily needs 17 17

18. Mc Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Unit 8
Mc Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Argues that a manager’s behaviour towards an employee is based on his
assumptions about the nature of human beings
Proposes two distinctive types of human beings, Theory X (negative) and
Theory Y (positive)
Theory X
Inherently dislike work and wherever possible will try to avoid
Must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals
Will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction wherever possible
Place security above all other factors and display little ambition
View work as being natural as rest or play
Will exercise self-discretion and self-control if committed to objectives
Average person can learn to accept or even seek responsibility
Ability to make innovative decisions is not sole province of managers but is widely dispersed
throughout organisation 18 18

19. Unit Alderfer’s ERG Theory 8
Modification of Maslow’s Theory, which condenses Maslow’s 5
levels of needs into 3 levels, namely Existence, Relatedness and
Growth
Unlike Maslow, argues that lower level needs need not be satisfied
before a higher level need emerges
Argues that an individual is motivated to satisfy one or more basic
needs and that if a person’s need at a particular level is blocked,
attention should be focused on satisfying needs at other levels
Illustration : If growth needs are blocked due to limited promotion
opportunities, then provide greater opportunities to satisfy existence
and relatedness 19 19

20. Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Theory
Unit 8
Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Theory
Argues that job performance is determined by employee’s attitude towards
job
Argues that factors leading to job satisfaction is distinct from that leading to
job dissatisfaction
Hygiene factors : Factors that are related to job context, extrinsic to the job
and which are concerned with job environment. If present serve to prevent
dissatisfaction. Eg: Salary, job security, working conditions, level and
quality of supervision, company policy and administration, Interpersonal
relations, etc
Motivators : Factors that are related to the job content itself (Intrinsic) which
when present serve to motivate employees to superior effort and performance.
Example: Sense of achievement, recognition, responsibility, nature of work,
personal growth and advancement, etc 20 20

21. Needs Hierarchy Theory
Unit 8
Linking Maslow, ERG and 2 factor Tehory
Herzberg’s
2 Factor Theory
Needs Hierarchy Theory
ERG Theory
Hygiene
factors
Self-
Actualization
Growth
Esteem
Belongingness
Relatedness
Motivators
Safety
Existence
Physiological

22. Mc Clelland’s Theory of Needs
Unit 8
Mc Clelland’s Theory of Needs
Argues that a person’s personality characteristic (the need to
achieve) plays a major role in job performance. Argues that
people have three major needs, namely achievement, power
and affiliation
Need for Achievement: The drive to excel, to achieve in
relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. The desire for
challenging and risky goals
Need for Power : Desire to control one’s environment i.e the need to
make others behave in a way they would not have behaved
otherwise.
Need for affiliation : Desire for friendly and close relationships, to
seek approval, to conform, to avoid conflict and to try to project a
favourable self - image 22 22

23. Expectancy Theories (1)
Unit 8
Expectancy Theories (1)
Common theories : Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, Porter and Lawler
Expectancy Model and Lawler’s Revised Expectancy Model
Basic Philosophy : The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed
by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
Argues that motivation is a function of the perceived relationship
between effort and perceived level of performance with the
expectation that the performance will lead to rewards 23 23

24. Three essential relationships
Unit 8
Expectancy Theories (2)
Three essential relationships
Effort – Performance Relationship
Perception of individual that certain amount of effort will lead to performance
Performance – Reward Relationship
Degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
Rewards – Personal Goals Relationship
Degree to which organisational rewards satisfy individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractivness of those potential rewards for the individual 24 24

25. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1)
Unit 8
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1)
Model is based on 3 key variables, namely Valence, Instrumentality
and Expectancy
Argues that people prefer certain outcomes from their behaviour
over others and if the preferred outcome is achieved, then there will
be satisfaction
Expectancy = Perceived probability that effort will lead to first
level outcome
Instrumentality = Extent to which 1st level outcomes will lead to
second level outcomes
Valence = Attractiveness of a particular outcome to the individual 25 25

26. Model of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (2)
Unit 8
Model of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (2)
Expectancy
Perceived probability
that effort will lead to
1st level outcomes
Instrumentality
Extent to which 1st
Level outcomes lead to
2nd level outcomes
High Wages
Promotion
Effort Expended
(Motivational force)
Level of
Performance
High
Productivity
Praise from
superiors
Friendship of
Co-workers 26 26

27. Model of Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory (1)
Unit 8
Model of Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory (1)
Perceived
equitable
rewards
Value of
reward
Abilities
And
traits
Intrinsic
rewards
Satisfaction
Effort
Performance
Accomplishment
Extrinsic
rewards
Perceived
Effort – Reward
probability
Role
perceptions 27 27

28. Model of Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory (2)
Unit 8
Model of Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory (2)
Value of reward
Similar to valence. Value placed on reward depends on strength of its desirability
Perceived effort
- Reward probability
Similar to expectancy. Refers to a person’s expectation that certain outcomes are dependent on a given amount of effort
Effort
Amount of effort expended is dependent upon the interaction of value of reward and perception of that effort-reward relationship
Abilities & Traits
Effort also influenced by individual characteristics.
Role perceptions
The way in which individuals view their work and the roles they should adopt. Influences the direction and level of action necessary for effective performance
Performance
Depends not only on amount of effort but also other factors such as skills , role perception, etc
Rewards
Desirable outcomes. Both monetary and non-monetary such as feeling of achievement, responsibility, etc
Perceived equitable
rewards
Level of rewards people feel that they should fairly receive for a given standard of performance
Satisfaction
An attitude, An individual’s state of mind that is derived from actual rewards received and perceived level of rewards for a given standard of performance 28 28

29. Lawler’s Revised Expectancy Model
Unit 8
Lawler’s Revised Expectancy Model
Need related
outcomes
E P
Expectancies
P O
Expectancies
Outcomes
Performance
Outcomes
Effort
Outcomes
Performance
Outcomes
E – P expectancy : Person’s perception of the probability that a given amount of effort will result in intended behaviour
P – O Expectancy: Person’s perception of the probability that a given level of performance will lead to particular need related outcomes 29 29

30. Generic Collaborative Goal Setting Model
Unit 8
Generic Collaborative Goal Setting Model
Relate organisational and individual goals to employee
(To help employees see how their work contributes to the vision
Ask for input
(To ensure that goals are clear, relevant and set at an appropriate level)
Discuss goals
(To assess level of difficulty and resources needed)
Summarise to ensure clarity and commitment
(To make sure goals are clearly understood and there is agreement not only on
the goal but also on the support required, milestones, etc)
Express your confidence and support
(To convey a sense of challenge and excitement and to impress the impact that
achievement would make to the organisation as a whole)

31. Effective Goal Setting Theory
Unit 8
Effective Goal Setting Theory
Specific
Relevant
Challenging
Task
Effort
Task
Performance
Commitment
Participation
Feedback

32. Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
Unit 8
Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
High
Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
Task Performance
Low
Moderate
Challenging
Impossible
Goal Difficulty

33. Unit 8
Conclusion
The relationship between an organisation and its employee is governed by what motivates the employee to superior performance. It is extremely important that managers understand the nature of human behaviour and how best to motivate staff so that they work willingly and effectively 41 41

34. Fundamentals of Individual behaviour
Unit 8
Next Unit
Fundamentals of Individual behaviour
Values, attitudes and Job satisfaction 42 42