1. Thinking About Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior 2e
Charles T. Blair-Broeker
Randal M. Ernst

2. Cognitive Domain

3. Memory Chapter

4. Forgetting and Memory Construction
Module 23

5. Information Processing Model
Encoding – process of getting information into the memory system
Storage - retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval – process of getting encoded information out of memory storage

6. Forgetting as Encoding Failure
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

7. Encoding Failures People fail to encode information because:
It is perceived as unimportant to them
It is not necessary to know the information
A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

8. Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)

9. Which is the Right Penny? (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)

10. Forgetting as Storage Failure
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

11. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables
Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

12. Ebbinghaus’s research and more recent research indicates that some memories do decay. Most of this forgetting happens in the first few days after we “learn” the information.
Memories that survive this initial period and continue to last for years are called permastore memories.

13. The Forgetting Curve (Adapted from Ebbinghaus, 1885)

14. Permastore Memory
Long-term memories that are especially resistant to forgetting and are likely to last a lifetime

15. Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Interference
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

16. Interference
A retrieval problem when one memory gets in the way of remembering another
Two types of interference:
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference

17. Proactive Interference
When an older memory disrupts the recall of a newer memory

18. Proactive Interference

19. Retroactive Interference
When a more recent memory disrupts the recall of an older memory

20. Retroactive Interference

21. Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Motivated Forgetting
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

22. Repression Part of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
Process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious
Supposed means of protecting oneself from painful memories
Not well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

23. Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

24. Memory Jigsaw Analogy
Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces.
People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory
Try the following

25. Textbook, all-nighter, quiz, flashcards, review, lecture, vocabulary, GPA, outline, essay, notes, semester, exam, due date, grading scale, assignment, unit test, memorize, class project, handouts, tutor, chapter guide

26. So which words were really on the list, which were imagined?
Your memory was constructed out of some things that were real and some that were not, and distinguishing between the two categories will now be difficult.

27. Elizabeth Loftus ( )
Was the first to demo in a lab this tendency to construct memories
Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions
Demonstrated the misinformation effect

28. Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into a memory of an event
Affects eyewitness testimony
Elizabeth Loftus how reliable is your memory?
Why Eyewitnesses Get It Wrong
Jennifer and Ronald

29. Misinformation Effect

30. TOT Tip of the Tongue phenomenom
Failing to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent, or about to happen
When you experience TOT you often recall one or more features of a target word (first letter, syllable, similar sound)

31. When experiencing TOT phenomenom, individuals report
A feeling of being seized by the state, feeling something like mild anguish while searching for the word, and a sense of relief when the word is found
Becomes more frequent with age
Becomes a medical condition if too frequent that it interferes with learning
Called anomic aphasia (brain damage)

32. 2 explanations:
Direct Access View: memory strength is not enough to recall an item, but is strong enough to trigger the state
Inferential View: they arise when the rememberer tries to piece together different clues about the word

33. FOK
Feeling of knowing state: the feeling that one will be able to recognize an item that is currently unaccessable, from a list of items

34. Memory Construction: Children’s Recall
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

35. Children’s Testimony on Abuse
Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable
Children are very open to suggestions
As children mature their memories improve, get better with age
There are ways to mimimize false memories

36. Accurate Interviewing Methods
To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should:
Phrase questions in a way the child can understand
Have no prior contact with the child
Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers

37. Memory Construction: Recovered Memories
Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

38. Many legitimate therapists are convinced that some of their clients of abuse have repressed memories and that they have helped them recover those memories through therapy
Other therapists are skeptical and worry that therapists might be leading suggestible people into constructing false memories

39. There are two specific questions:
1. Can repression of memories occur?
2. Can recovered memories be false?
See page 421

40. Accuracy of Memories

41. The End

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43. Name of Concept
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