1. Model Vertical Coordinates and Levels and Nesting

2. Model Vertical Coordinates
Earliest models were in z or p.
A problem near terrain (complex boundary conditions where model level intersected mountains)
Next innovation were terrain-following geometries…sigma coordinates. Sigma p and z. Still heavily used today.
Also used: potential temperature (theta coordinates, eta coordinates—like p) and hybrids (such as sigma-p/theta)

4. Model Levels Modern models generally have been 35 and 100 levels.
Generally NOT uniform in height.
Virtually all have many model levels near the surface to define the PBL.
Many have higher density of levels near the tropopause as well.

5. ECMWF Levels

6. Nesting
If one has lots of computer power and a global model, no worry about horizontal boundary conditions or nesting
But if want to run at high resolution over a limited domain, can use nesting—running a separate model domain at high resolution embedded in a lower-resolution simulation.
Can have one way or two way nesting.

9. Next Generation Models May Not Have Separate Nests

10. Problem: What kind of physics parameterization can handle multiple resolutions at SAME TIME?