1. Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
Chapter 40
Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

2. Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges
Anatomy is the study of the biological form of an organism
Physiology is the study of the biological functions an organism performs
The comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are closely correlated
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3. Fig. 40-1
Figure 40.1 How does a jackrabbit keep from overheating?
For the Discovery Video Human Body, go to Animation and Video Files.

4. Size and shape affect the way an animal interacts with its environment
Concept 40.1: Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
Size and shape affect the way an animal interacts with its environment
Many different animal body plans have evolved and are determined by the genome
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5. Physical Constraints on Animal Size and Shape
The ability to perform certain actions depends on :
an animal’s shape, size, and environment
Evolutionary convergence reflects:
Different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge
Physical laws impose:
constraints on animal
size and shape
Video: Shark Eating Seal
Video: Galápagos Sea Lion
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6. (a) Tuna (b) Penguin (c) Seal Fig. 40-2
Figure 40.2 Convergent evolution in fast swimmers
(b) Penguin
(c) Seal

7. Exchange with the Environment
An animal’s size & shape:
directly affect how it exchanges energy and materials with its surroundings
Exchange occurs:
As substances dissolved in the aqueous medium diffuse and are transported across the cells’ plasma membranes
A single-celled protist living in water:
Has a sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to service its entire volume of cytoplasm
Video: Hydra Eating Daphnia
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8. Mouth Gastrovascular cavity Exchange Exchange Exchange 0.15 mm 1.5 mm
Fig. 40-3
Mouth
Gastrovascular
cavity
Exchange
Exchange
Exchange
Figure 40.3 Contact with the environment
0.15 mm
1.5 mm
(a) Single cell
(b) Two layers of cells

9. Multicellular organisms with a sac body plan have:
Body walls that are only two cells thick, facilitating diffusion of materials
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10. More complex organisms have:
Highly folded internal surfaces for exchanging materials
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11. Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
External environment
CO2
Food O2
Mouth
Animal
body
Respiratory
system
Blood
50 µm
0.5 cm
Lung tissue
Nutrients
Cells
Heart
Circulatory
system
10 µm
Interstitial
fluid
Digestive
system
Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
Lining of small intestine
Excretory
system
Kidney tubules
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste products
(nitrogenous waste)

12. Metabolic waste products (nitrogenous waste)
Fig. 40-4a
External environment
CO2
Food O2
Mouth
Animal
body
Respiratory
system
Blood
Nutrients
Cells
Heart
Circulatory
system
Interstitial
fluid
Digestive
system
Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
Excretory
system
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste products
(nitrogenous waste)

13. Lining of small intestine
Fig. 40-4b
0.5 cm
Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
Lining of small intestine

14. Fig. 40-4c
50 µm
Lung tissue
Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals

15. Kidney tubules 10 µm Fig. 40-4d
Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
Kidney tubules

16. In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with:
Interstitial fluid
Such fluid allows for the movement of material into and out of cells
A complex body plan:
Helps an animal to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in a variable environment
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17. Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
Most animals are composed of:
Specialized cells
Cells are organized into tissues
Tissues have different functions
Tissues make up:
Organs
Organs together make up:
organ systems
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18. Table 40-1

19. Tissue Structure and Function
Different tissues:
have different structures
Such structures are suited to their functions
Tissues are classified into four main categories:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
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20. covers the outside of the body
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue:
covers the outside of the body
Lines the organs and cavities within the body
It contains cells that are closely joined
The shape of epithelial cells may be:
Cuboidal (like dice)
Columnar (like bricks on end)
Squamous (like floor tiles)
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21. The arrangement of epithelial cells may be: Simple (single cell layer)
Stratified (multiple tiers of cells)
Seudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length)
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22. Epithelial Tissue Cuboidal epithelium Simple columnar epithelium
Fig. 40-5a
Epithelial Tissue
Cuboidal
epithelium
Simple
columnar
epithelium
Pseudostratified
ciliated
columnar
epithelium
Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Simple
squamous
epithelium

23. Apical surface Basal surface Basal lamina 40 µm Fig. 40-5b
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
40 µm

24. Mainly binds and supports other tissues It contains:
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue
Mainly binds and supports other tissues
It contains:
Sparsely packed cells scattered throughout
An extracellular matrix
The matrix consists of:
Fibers in
A liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation
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25. There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made of protein:
Collagenous fibers:
provide strength and flexibility
Elastic fibers
stretch & snap back to their original length
Reticular fibers:
join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
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26. Connective tissue contains cells, including
Fibroblasts:
secrete the protein of extracellular fibers
Macrophages
are involved in the immune system
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27. In vertebrates, the fibers foundation combine to form six major types of connective tissue:
Loose connective tissue :
binds epithelia to underlying tissues
holds organs in place
Fibrous connective tissue found in:
Tendons:
attach muscles to bones
Ligaments:
which connect bones at joints
Cartilage:
a strong and flexible support material
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28. stores fat for insulation and fuel Blood:
Adipose tissue
stores fat for insulation and fuel
Blood:
composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
Bone:
mineralized and forms the skeleton
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29. Connective Tissue Loose connective tissue Cartilage Fibrous connective
Fig. 40-5c
Connective Tissue
Collagenous fiber
Loose
connective
tissue
Chondrocytes
Cartilage
120 µm
100 µm
Elastic fiber
Chondroitin
sulfate
Nuclei
Fat droplets
Fibrous
connective
tissue
Adipose
tissue
30 µm
150 µm
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Osteon
White blood cells
Bone
Blood
700 µm
55 µm
Central canal
Plasma
Red blood
cells

30. Loose connective tissue
Fig. 40-5d
Collagenous fiber
120 µm
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Elastic fiber
Loose connective tissue

31. Fibrous connective tissue
Fig. 40-5e
Nuclei
30 µm
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Fibrous connective tissue

32. Bone Osteon 700 µm Central canal Fig. 40-5f
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Central canal
Bone

33. Cartilage Chondrocytes 100 µm Chondroitin sulfate Fig. 40-5g
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Chondroitin
sulfate
Cartilage

34. Adipose tissue Fat droplets 150 µm Fig. 40-5h
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Adipose tissue

35. Blood White blood cells 55 µm Plasma Red blood cells Fig. 40-5i
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Plasma
Red blood
cells
Blood

36. It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types:
Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals
It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types:
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement
Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities
Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart
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37. Muscle Tissue Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle Multiple
Fig. 40-5j
Muscle Tissue
Multiple
nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Skeletal
muscle
Nucleus
100 µm
Intercalated
disk
50 µm
Cardiac muscle
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Smooth
muscle
Nucleus
Muscle
fibers
25 µm

38. Skeletal muscle Multiple nuclei Muscle fiber Sarcomere 100 µm
Fig. 40-5k
Multiple
nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
100 µm
Skeletal muscle

39. Smooth muscle Nucleus Muscle fibers 25 µm Fig. 40-5l
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
25 µm
Smooth muscle

40. Cardiac muscle Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 µm Fig. 40-5m
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Nucleus
Intercalated
disk
50 µm
Cardiac muscle

41. Nervous tissue contains:
Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
Nervous tissue contains:
Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses
Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
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42. Nervous Tissue Neuron 40 µm Axons Blood vessel Dendrites Cell body
Fig. 40-5n
Nervous Tissue
40 µm
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Glial cells
Neuron
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Axons
Blood vessel
15 µm

43. Neuron 40 µm Dendrites Cell body Axon Fig. 40-5o
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Neuron

44. Glial cells and axons Glial cells Axons Blood vessel 15 µm Fig. 40-5p
Figure 40.5 Structure and function in animal tissues
Blood vessel
Glial cells and axons
15 µm

45. Coordination and Control
Control coordination within a body depend on:
he endocrine system
The nervous system
The endocrine system:
transmits chemical signals called hormones
Signals carried throughout the body to receptive cells via blood
A hormone may affect one or more regions throughout the body
Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can have long-lasting effects
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46. (a) Signaling by hormones (b) Signaling by neurons
Fig. 40-6
Stimulus
Stimulus
Endocrine
cell
Neuron
Axon
Signal
Hormone
Signal travels
along axon to
a specific
location.
Signal travels
everywhere
via the
bloodstream.
Blood
vessel
Signal
Axons
Figure 40.6 Signaling in the endocrine and nervous systems
Response
Response
(a) Signaling by hormones
(b) Signaling by neurons

47. cell via the bloodstream. Stimulus Endocrine Hormone Signal travels
Fig. 40-6a
Stimulus
Endocrine
cell
Hormone
Signal travels
everywhere
via the
bloodstream.
Blood
vessel
Figure 40.6a Signaling in the endocrine and nervous systems
Response
(a) Signaling by hormones

48. The nervous system transmits information between specific locations
The information conveyed depends on a signal’s pathway, not the type of signal
Nerve signal transmission is very fast
Nerve impulses can be received by neurons, muscle cells, and endocrine cells
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49. (b) Signaling by neurons
Fig. 40-6b
Stimulus
Neuron
Axon
Signal
Signal travels
along axon to
a specific
location.
Signal
Axons
Figure 40.6b Signaling in the endocrine and nervous systems
Response
(b) Signaling by neurons

50. Concept 40.2: Feedback control loops maintain the internal environment in many animals
Animals manage their internal environment by regulating or conforming to the external environment
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51. Regulating and Conforming
A regulator uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external, environmental fluctuation
A conformer allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes
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52. (temperature conformer)
Fig. 40-7 40
River otter (temperature regulator) 30
Body temperature (°C) 20
Largemouth bass
(temperature conformer) 10
Figure 40.7 The relationship between body and environmental temperatures in an aquatic temperature regulator and an aquatic temperature conformer 10 20 30 40
Ambient (environmental) temperature (ºC)

53. Homeostasis
Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment
In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration are each maintained at a constant level
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54. Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the internal environment
For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response
The response returns the variable to the set point
Animation: Negative Feedback
Animation: Positive Feedback
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55. Response: Heater turned off Room temperature decreases Stimulus:
Fig. 40-8
Response:
Heater
turned
off
Room
temperature
decreases
Stimulus:
Control center
(thermostat)
reads too hot
Set
point:
20ºC
Figure 40.8 A nonliving example of negative feedback: control of room temperature
Stimulus:
Control center
(thermostat)
reads too cold
Room
temperature
increases
Response:
Heater
turned on