1. Environmental Ethics and Philosophy
Are There Universal Ethical Principles?
Universalists: Plato, Kant believe that fundamental principles of ethics are universal, unchanging and eternal
Relativists: Sophists- everything contextual. Believe that moral principles are always relative to a particular person
Nihilists: Schopenhauer- arbitrary survival. Claim that the world makes no sense at all and that everything is completely arbitrary
Utilitarians: Bentham ( )- maximum pleasure, greatest good for greatest number of people
Values, Rights, and Obligations
Moral agents. Some philosophers believe that only humans are moral agents
Moral subjects. Children are considered moral subjects not moral agents
Moral extensionism
Inherent, instrumental value
Non-living things, do they have value?

2. Modernism and Postmodernism
Descartes, Bacon, Newton: hope for universal laws of morality
Environmental ethics is arbitrary and shifting and that there is no grand narrative of history and no universal philosophy; Derrida, Lyotard, Foucalt

3. Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
Individual beliefs towards ecology depends on ethical perspectives
Most people have set of core values or beliefs
Environmental concerns are a source for comparisons among different values and perceptions
Domination
Lynn White, Jr. (1967) domination over nature
Interpretation of religious values has lead in past to anthropocentric (human-centered) ecological principles which believe that humans are the focus of creation
Current movement in religious organizations to fight for ecological concerns
Stewardship
Responsibility to manage our ecosystem. To work together with human and non-human forces to sustain life

4. Biocentrism (life-centered), Animal Rights, and Ecocentrism (ecologically-centered)
Muir, Leopold- support idea of biocentrism, biodiversity is the highest ethical value in nature
Ecocentric: whole is more important than individual animal
Animal rights supporters focus on the individual
Ecofeminism
Warren, Shiva, Merchant, Ruether, and King
A network of personal relationships

5. Table 2.1 Worldviews and ethical perspectives -- A comparison
Philosophy Intrinsic Value Instrumental Value Role of humans Anthropocentric Humans Nature Masters
Stewardship Humans & Nature Tools Caretakers Biocentric Species Abiotic nature One of many
Animal rights Individuals Processes Equals
Ecocentric Processes Individuals Destroyers
Ecofeminist Relationships Roles Caregivers

6. Environmental Justice
Combination of civil rights and environmental protection that demands a safe , healthy life-giving environment for everyone
Most people of low socio-economic position are exposed to high pollution levels
36% (1994) of minority populations lived near hazardous waste sites

7. Environmental Racism
Unequal distribution of hazardous waste based on race
Black children 2-3 times more likely to have lead poisoning
Dumping Across Borders
Toxic colonialism: targeting third/fourth world countries for waste disposal
Polluting industries move to poor countries, e.g. Mexico
Environmental Justice Act (1992)

8. Are Green Organizations Too White?
National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit (1991)
Most mainstream environmental groups do not represent inner city residents

9. Is Nature Fragile or Resilient?
Nature seen as powerful in past
Nature seen as a delicate balance as technology increases our ability to disrupt

11. Science as a Way of Knowing
A Faustian Bargain?
Technology can create power to save and destroy life
Dr. Faustus sold his soul to the devil in exchange for power and wealth

12. What Is Science?
Scientific method
Ordered observations to describe the physical world and solve problems
Testing Hypotheses
Experiments expose variables as possible causes and help in formulation of a hypothesis that explains a sequence of events
Leads to a theory that postulates general principles about the events
Descriptive and Interpretive Science
Laboratory simulations and field studies help describe events not directly available for testing with basic five senses
Holistic/interpretive science: describe biases, which are always present
Proof Is Elusive
All data is conditionally interpreted and open to revision

14. Technology and Progress
Neo-Luddites: view based on Ned Ludd, view that modern technology eventually fails
Appropriate Technology
E.F. Schumacher (1973) published a book “Small is Beautiful”- building of tools and technology for sites where people live now
Promotion of safe, creative, environmentally sound, emotionally satisfying work

15. Summary
Universalists: people who think eternally valid moral laws and ethics exist
Nihilists disagree with Universalists
Relativists: contextual
Utilitarians: greatest good to greatest number
Postmodernists: everything is socially constructed
Ecofeminists: patriarchal systems cause environmental/social destruction
Anthropocentrists: focus on humans
Biocentrists: everything has value
Ecocentrists: focus on ecological processes
Science can take many forms; interpretive sciences are more holistic
Technology can support advances and declines in world ecology
Appropriate technology may provide more options in avoiding environmental problems