1. Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase
Chapter 11
Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase
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Establishment of Rome
Legend of Romulus and Remus
Rome founded by Romulus 753 B.C.E.
Indo-European migrants ca B.C.E.
Bronze ca B.C.E.; iron ca. 900 B.C.E.
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The Etruscans
Originally from Anatolia
Colonized Po River valley to Naples region
Society declines late sixth century B.C.E.
Greek maritime attacks
Celtic invasions from north
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The Kingdom of Rome
Monarchy through 600s to 500s B.C.E.
Streets, temples, public buildings
Major center of trade routes
3 groups will compete for control of the Italian Peninsula:
Etruscans – south
Greeks – north
Latins – Romans in Rome
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5. Establishment of the Republic
509 B.C.E., Romans overthrow last Etruscan king
Roman forum built – laws (12 Tables) posted there
Republican constitution
Executive: two consuls – elected to one-year terms
Legislative: Senate
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6. Hypothetical reconstruction of Roman Forum in Imperial times
Hypothetical reconstruction of Roman Forum in Imperial times. Watercolor (18th century), Giuseppe Becchetti.

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Social Conflict
Patricians (aristocrats)
Plebeians (commoners)
Major class conflict, 400s BCE
Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for representation
Rights expanded through 200s B.C.E.
Constitution allowed for dictators to be appointed in times of crisis
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9. Expansion of the Republic
Romans take over iron industry fifth to fourth century B.C.E.
Expansion via military threat and incentives
Tax exemptions
Trade privileges
Citizenship
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The Punic Wars
B.C.E.: 3 major wars with Carthage
Fight started over Sicilian grain supply
Later conflict with declining Hellenistic empires
Carthaginian General Hannibal surprises Rome by invading from the north, instead of the south
Dangerously crosses the Alps into Italy
Wins a few battles but is eventually defeated
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Hannibal’s route to Italy
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The Punic Wars (cont.)
End of the 3rd war – Rome burns Carthage and spreads salt on the ashes so nothing can grow back
Rome becomes dominant force of the Mediterranean
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13. Expansion of the Roman Republic to 146 B.C.E.
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The Gracchi Brothers
Tiberius and Gaius
Attempted to limit land holdings of aristocrats
Tiberius assassinated; Gaius executed
Development of private armies made up of landless peasants
Gaius Marius (with reformers)
Lucius Cornelius Sulla (with aristocrats)
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15. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
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Civil War
87 B.C.E.: Gaius Marius takes Rome
83 B.C.E.: Lucius Cornelius Sulla drives Marius out
Reign of terror follows
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Julius Caesar
Nephew of Marius
Escapes Sulla’s terror
Relatively young, well-timed trip abroad
Rises in popularity
Public spectacles, victories in Gaul (present-day France)
Joins consuls Pompey and Crassus – form 1st triumverate (3 consuls)
Pompey becomes suspicious of Caesar’s popularity – leads to Civil War
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Young Julius Caesar
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Julius Caesar (cont.)
Caesar takes Egypt – child with queen Cleopatra VII named Caesarion
Egyptians murder Pompey
Cleopatra is Egypt’s last pharaoh
Caesar attacked Rome 49 B.C.E.
Names self dictator for life in 46 B.C.E.
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Caesar’s Policies
Centralized military, governance under personal control
Redistribution of land to war veterans, other allies
Major building projects reduce urban unemployment
Extended citizenship to provinces
Aristocrats threatened, Senators assassinate Caesar on March 15, 44 B.C.E.
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21. Assassination of Julius Caesar (100-44 B. C. ) in Roman senate
Assassination of Julius Caesar ( B.C.) in Roman senate. Painting (19th century), Vincenzo Camuccini.

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Augustus
Civil conflict follows death of Caesar
2nd Triumvirate forms:
Octavian – Caesar’s grand-nephew
Marc Antony – Caesar's loyal friend
Marcus Lepidus – older Senator
Alliance ended in civil war between Octavian and Antony
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Augustus (cont.)
Marc Antony goes to Egypt, marries Cleopatra
Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium
27 B.C.E. Senate gives title of Augustus (exalted one) to Octavian – becomes Rome’s 1st emperor
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24. Augustus’s Administration
Monarchy disguised as a republic
Increasing centralization of political, military power
Stabilized empire
Death in 14 C.E.
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25. Augustus, first Roman emperor (63 B.C. - 14 A.D.). Marble bust.

26. Expansion and Integration of Empire
Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas
Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain
Coordination of crop production, transport of natural resources
Developed infrastructure, cities emerge
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The Roman Empire, ca. 117 C.E.
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28. Pax Romana: “Roman Peace”
Facilitated trade, communication
Roadwork
Curbs
Drainage
Flat paving stones
Milestones
Postal service
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Roman Law
Twelve Tables, 449 B.C.E.
Adapted to diverse populations under Roman rule
Innocent until proven guilty
Right to challenge accusers in court
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31. Figure 4

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The City of Rome
Cash flow
Taxes, tribute, spoils, commerce
Massive construction projects
Statuary, monumental architecture, aqueducts
Technology: concrete
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Roman Attractions
Imported goods
Trajan’s Forum – shopping mall
Baths of Caracalla – public bath/spa
Underground sewage
Circus Maximus – chariot races and sporting events
250,000 spectators
Colosseum – Gladiatorial games
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Family and Society
Paterfamilias: “father of the family”
Right to arrange marriages, sell children into slavery
Women not allowed to inherit property
Enforcement inconsistent
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Slavery
100s C.E.: estimated at one-third of empire’s population
Agricultural work, quarries, mines
Chain labor
Revolt under Spartacus, 73 B.C.E.
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Roman Deities
Polytheistic
Major gods – adopted from the Greeks
Tutelary deities – personal guardians
Absorption of gods from other cultures – Paganism
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Temple of Jupiter in Rome
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Cicero and Stoicism
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( B.C.E.) – orator, writer
Influenced by Greek thought
Proponent of Stoicism
Individual’s highest public duty is pursuit of justice
Scorned those who sought wealth by means that were immoral, illegal or unjust
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Mithraism
From Zoroastrian myth: god of sun, light
Roman version emphasizes strength, courage, discipline
Women not admitted into cult
Appealed to military
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Judaism in Early Rome
6 BCE – Rome conquers Judea – land of the Jews
Jewish monotheism at odds with most ancient cultures
Refusal to recognize state gods
Repeated Jewish rebellions
Romans finally crush Jewish self-governance in Jewish War (66-70 C.E.)
Develop belief that a savior (messiah) would save them from the Roman rule
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41. Synagogue at Capernaum
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The Essenes
Messianic Jewish cult – believe a Messiah (savior) will free them from the evil Roman Empire
Baptism – how new members were admitted
Ascetic lifestyle – strict moral code
Dead Sea scrolls – discovered in 1947 – shed light on their beliefs
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Dead Sea Scrolls
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Jesus of Nazareth
Jewish teacher – viewed as the Christian savior
Moral code, reputation for miracle-working
Peaceful – taught devotion to God and love for fellow humans
Early 30’s CE: Romans fear instigation of rebellion, crucify Jesus
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Possible location for the Sermon on the Mount
The exact location for the sermon is not mentioned in the bible, but this picture in the Galilean hillside is a good suggestion. In 2000, Pope John Paul II delivered a mass here that over 100,000 people could fit.
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46. Jesus’ Early Followers
Belief in Jesus’ resurrection, divine nature
Title Christ: “anointed one”
Teachings recorded in New Testament
Jesus is son of God
His death offsets sins of those faithful to him
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Paul of Tarsus
Originally Saul of Tarsus – persecuted Christians
Blinded on road to Damascus – becomes devoted follower of Jesus
Extends teachings far beyond Jewish circles
Traveled widely throughout the Roman empire
Missionary activity
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48. Early Christian Communities
Local leaders: bishops
Regional variation in doctrine and ritual
Nature of resurrection
Role of women
Extreme Roman persecution to late-200s C.E.
Crucifixions, slaughters in arena, etc
makes religion more organized – gradual acceptance of teachings
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49. Detail of Romans carrying Jewish spoils. Replica.

54. Growth of Early Christianity
dramatic expansion of Christianity
Especially with dispossessed, disenfranchised classes
Urban poor
Women
312 CE: Constantine becomes first Christian emperor – claims God helped him rise to power
389: Theodosius banns all other Gods and makes Christianity official religion of the empire
Ends gladiator games early 400s
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56. Fall of the Roman Empire: Internal Factors
C.E.: “barracks emperors” - twenty-six claimants to the throne, all but one killed in power struggles
Epidemics
Disintegration of imperial economy in favor of local and regional self-sufficient economies
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Maximus Thrax – the 1st of the barracks emperors. He once was a professional wrestler.
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Diocletian (r C.E.)
Divided empire into two administrative districts, east and west
Co-emperors, dual lieutenants
“Tetrarchs”
Currency, budget reform
Relative stability disappears after Diocletian's death, civil war follows
312: Constantine emerges victorious – creates a capital city for the eastern empire, Constantinople
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Diocletian Splits the Empire
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2 Reforming emperors
Diocletian
Constantine
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61. Fall of the Roman Empire: External Factors
Visigoths – Germanic agriculturalists influenced by Roman law, Christianity
originally allies of Rome, they began attacking Roman towns in the north
400s CE: attacks by Huns under Attila
Massive migration of Germanic peoples into Roman empire causes further decline
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Attila the Hun
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63. Fall of the Roman Empire: External Factors (cont.)
410 C.E.: Visigoths become first Germanic tribe to sack city of Rome
476 C.E.: Germanic General Odovacer deposes the emperor, empire officially falls
Last Roman emperor – 14-year-old Romulus Augustulus
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Odoacer receives the blessing of St. Severinus to depose Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus
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Germanic Invasions and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, C.E.
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Compare the growth of the Roman empire during the Republican period versus the imperial period. What were the main locales of expansion during each era?
Identify and then account for the basic differences between Greek and Roman societies and states? How, and why, did Roman society successfully build and maintain a far-reaching empire while Greeks mostly remained in their states?
Look at the picture of the Roman forum on page 214. What do the ruins tell us about public life in Roman times?
Look at the selection drawn from Tacitus on page 220 (see Textbook: Sources from the Past: Tacitus on Corruption in the Early Roman Empire). According to Tacitus, what were the problems facing Rome during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius?
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68. Cultural Change in the Roman Empire
Growth of Christianity
Constantine’s vision, 312 C.E.
Promulgates Edict of Milan, allows Christian practice
Converts to Christianity
380 C.E., Emperor Theodosius proclaims Christianity official religion of Roman empire
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St. Augustine ( C.E.)
Hippo, north Africa
Experimented with Greek thought, Manichaeism
387 C.E., converts to Christianity
Major theologian
Gave up life of partying and lived life of poverty
Served the poor of North Africa
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70. The Institutional Church
Conflicts over doctrine and practice in early Church
Divinity of Jesus
Role of women
Church hierarchy established
Patriarchs, bishop of Rome
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