1. Ch. 7: Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

2. Classical Conditioning (Behaviorist approach to learning--Watson)
A type of learning where a stimulus gains the power to cause a response because it predicts another stimulus that already produces that response
Form of learning by association

3. Stimulus-Response
Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to
Response – any behavior or action

4. Stimulus-Response Relationship

5. Stimulus-Response Relationship

6. Components of classical conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that triggers a response automatically and reflexively

7. Unconditioned Response (UCR)
The automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus
The relationship between the UCS and UCR must be reflexive and not learned

8. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A stimulus that through learning has gained the power to cause a conditioned response
The CS must be a neutral stimulus before conditioning occurs.

9. Conditioned Response (CR)
The response to the conditioned stimulus
Usually the same behavior as the UCR

10. Acquisition The process of developing a learned response
The subject learns a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)

11. Extinction The diminishing of a learned response
In classical conditioning, the continual presentation of the CS without the UCS

12. Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response

13. Ivan Pavlov ( )
A Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning while doing experiments on the digestive system of dogs

14. Pavlov’s Research Apparatus

15. Pavlov’s Experiment

16. Generalization
Process in which an organism produces the same response to two similar stimuli
The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response

17. Discrimination
A process in which an organism produces different responses to two similar stimuli
The subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and the other does not.

18. Little Albert 11-month-old infant
Watson and his assistant, Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats
Led to questions about experimental ethics: informed consent? Harm/trauma? Debriefing?

19. Little Albert – During Conditioning

20. Little Albert - Generalization

21. Taste Aversion
Subjects become classically conditioned to avoid specific tastes (but not other stimuli, like the place where you ate it), because the tastes are associated with nausea.
Other evolutionary fears? Heights, thunderstorms, snakes, spiders?
John Garcia (1917-): discovered that taster aversion usually has a delay (associate nausea/illness with foods that are spoiled, toxic or poisonous)

22. Associations
Advertising: examples of how products are paired with images to create an impression? Cars, cigarettes, drinks, etc.
Old, comfy clothes
Negative associations:
Place where someone died
School
Song you heard when you broke up
Other examples?

23. Robert Rescorla ( )
Developed a theory emphasizing the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning
Pointed out that subjects had to determine (think) whether the CS was a reliable predictor of the UCS

24. Biological Perspective
We are predisposed to learn things that affect our survival.
We are predisposed to avoid threats our ancestors faced--food that made us sick, storms, heights, snakes, etc.--but not modern-day threats--cars, water pollution, etc.

25. Observational Learning
Learning by observing and watching others (the model)
Model: in observational learning, the person whose behavior the subject watches and imitates

26. Albert Bandura ( )
American psychologist who has done major studies in observational learning
Studies the consequences a model has on subjects
Bobo Doll experiments

27. Bobo Doll Experiments
Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior toward a bobo doll
Three experimental conditions:
The model was praised.
The model was punished.
The model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior.

28. Modeling Requirements
Bandura suggests four requirements for effective modeling to occur:
Attention
Retention
Ability to reproduce the behavior
Motivation

29. Antisocial/Prosocial Behavior
Antisocial behavior - negative, destructive unhelpful behavior
Prosocial behavior – positive, constructive, helpful behavior
Both types of behavior can be modeled effectively.

30. Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior
The frequency will increase if the consequence is reinforcing to the subject.
The frequency will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject.

31. Edward Thorndike ( )
Author of the law of effect: behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently.
Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently.

32. B.F. Skinner ( )
Developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world
Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber: used rats & pigeons

33. Reinforcement/Punishment
Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing

34. Positive Reinforcement
Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state
The subject receives something they want
Will strengthen the behavior

35. Negative Reinforcement
Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state
Something the subject doesn’t like is removed
Will strengthen the behavior

36. Positive/Negative Reinforcement

37. Immediate/Delayed Reinforcement
Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcement
Ability to delay gratification predicts higher achievement

38. Primary Reinforcement
Something that is naturally reinforcing
Examples: food, warmth, water, etc.
The item is reinforcing in and of itself

40. Secondary Reinforcement
Something that a person has learned to value or finds rewarding because it is paired with a primary reinforcer
Money is a good example

42. Types of Punishment An undesirable event following a behavior
A desirable state or event ends following a behavior

43. Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment

44. Negative Effects of Punishment
Doesn’t prevent the undesirable behavior when away from the punisher
Can lead to fear, anxiety, and lower self- esteem
Children who are punished physically may learn to use aggression as a means to solve problems.

45. Positive Effects of Punishment
Punishment can effectively control certain behaviors.
Especially useful if teaching a child not to do a dangerous behavior
Most still suggest reinforcing an incompatible behavior rather than using punishment

46. Shaping
Reinforcement of behaviors that are more and more similar to the one you want to occur
Technique used to establish a new behavior
Video clips: Skinner & pigeon, Sheldon & Penny (BBT), training dogs

47. Discrimination The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Learning to respond to one stimuli but not to a similar stimuli

48. Extinction
In operant conditioning, the loss of a conditioned behavior when consequences no longer follow it.
The subject no longer responds since the reinforcement or punishment has stopped.

49. Continuous reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response
Most useful way to establish a behavior
The behavior will extinguish quickly once the reinforcement stops.

50. Partial Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses
Includes the following types:
Fixed-interval and variable interval
Fixed-ratio and variable-ratio

51. Fixed-Interval Schedule
A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period of time
i.e. weekly quiz in a class

52. Variable-Interval Schedule
A partial reinforcement that rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time
i.e. “pop” quiz in a class

53. Fixed-Ratio Schedule
A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses
The faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they will receive.

54. Variable-Ratio Schedule
A partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses
This schedule is very resistant to extinction.
Sometimes called the “gambler’s schedule”; similar to a slot machine

55. Schedules of Reinforcement

56. Latent Learning
Learning that takes place in absence of an apparent reward

57. Cognitive Map A mental representation of a place
Experiments showed rats could learn a maze without any reinforcements

58. Overjustification Effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what someone already likes to do
The reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated

59. Biological Predisposition
Research suggests some species are biologically predisposed to learn specific behaviors