1. Observation as a Research method
Paper 1: Learning Theories
Methods
Observation as a Research method

2. Identify, describe and evaluate…
naturalistic observations
structured observations
covert and overt
participant and non-participant
Evaluation to: reliability, validity and ethical issues
understand what is meant by:
tallying
event and time sampling

3. If you make listening and observation your occupation you will gain much more than you can by talk.
Robert Baden Powell
There is no more difficult art to acquire than the art of observation, and for some men it is quite as difficult to record an observation in brief and plain language. William Osler
“Observation is the most penetrating of strategies, the most close and telling mode of gathering information”
Lofland (1971):
Observation

4. When do psychologists use observation?
Sometimes used in experiments to measure the DV, e.g. Bandura et al (1961)
As a research method in its own right, no manipulated variable
observers record free-flowing, unconstrained behavior sometimes with and sometimes without the Pps knowledge
When do psychologists use observation?

5. Varieties of Observational Study
Observational studies differ with regard to the extent to which …
the observational data is qualitative (e.g. field notes) or quantitative (e.g. tallies)
the setting is a natural environment or structured/contrived (naturalistic versus structured)
the Pps are aware or unaware that they are being watched (e.g. covert versus overt)
the observer is engaged with those being observed (e.g. participant versus non-participant)

6. Naturalistic Observation
People observed are in their everyday (natural) setting, e.g. aggression in school playground with no controlled variables
Advantages:
Behaviour is naturally occurring and unrestrained; not distorted by demand characteristics; more ecologically valid
Behavior unaffected by anxiety or a need to impress
Includes the full context of the behavior; rich source of information; speech, actions, interaction, body language etc.
Useful when manipulation maybe unethical or Pps cannot cooperate
Disadvantages:
less control over extraneous variables
observer training costly & lengthy
can’t use equipment which difficult to transport,
observer may have trouble remaining hidden (affects validity)
if coding system too rigid, may not record interesting and relevant behavior

7. Structured/controlled observation
A controlled artificial situation is set up and Pp are observed within the setting, e.g. Ainsworth and Bell’s Strange Situation
no IV manipulation
a situation can be set up and Pps observed within that situation
same experience can be set up over and over again to observe how different people behave

8. Participant Observation
Observer is involved with those being observed as part of the group; they might infiltrate a group or study a group they already belong to
Example: William Foote Whyte, (1955): Street Corner Society, seminal study of an Italian neighbourhood in USA: 'the social structure of an Italian slum'.
Example: Rosenhan, (1973) – observers became pseudo patients in a psychiatric ward (detained between 7-52 days, given 2100 pills)
Ethics: must recognize that observer’s presence might affect participant behaviour, things might be said, which would normally never be said to researcher- need to obtain consent for disclosure
Problems: objectivity might be impaired, problems taking notes (rely on memory), researcher the only witness

9. Evaluating Pp Observation
Advantages
High ecological validity; behaviour not affected in same way as it would be in a non-participant observation
Highly rich source of information; access to information likely to be much greater
Disadvantages
Once involved in the situation it may be difficult to be objective
May become distracted from observation due to role taken within the group (as with Zimbardo, 1973)
Reliability hard to assess as quality of data obtained relies upon the relationships that the individual is able to form with the group members

10. Non-participant observations
The observer is not part of the group
The Pps may know they are being observed (overt) or not (covert)
Advantages:
More objective and impartial than Pp observation
Easier to make records than Pp observation; records are likely therefore to be more accurate (valid)
Easier to be systematic; more organised (e.g. time/event sampling)

11. Non-participant observations
Disadvantages
Observer's presence is likely to affect the validity of the behaviour observed
Non-Pp observer may not fully understand what they are seeing and may not be able to create a valid observation schedule with which to record accurate and valid data; this is in contrast to a Pp ob where this less likely to happen

12. Covert and overt observation
Issues for consideration
Validity
Ethics (privacy, informed consent, distress, right to withdraw)
Practicality

13. Recording observational data
Watch the clip and think about what practical problems might arise when trying to observe the children’s behaviour
How would you record some qualitative data?
What quantitative data could be recorded and how?

14. Data gathering devices
Film or video recording
Still camera
Audio tape (spoken observation)
Hand-written notes, ratings or coding on the spot
Visual recordings can be analysed later and in researchers own time, can view repeatedly to increase understanding
Any methods can be used discreetly (note! ethical issues!) e.g. one-way mirrors

15. Systematic Quantitative Observation
A form of structured observation which aims to record and categorize behaviour as accurately and with as much agreement as possible.
Data is recorded using a observation schedule (behaviour checklist)
e.g. tally the frequency of specific behaviours, duration of a specific behaviour or rate a participant using some form of structured scale 1-10 Pp
Hit/shove: force, unprovoked
Hit / shove: force-following peer
Hit/shove force-retaliation
Shouts–unpro-voked
Shouts following peer
Shouts retali-ation A B

16. Behavior Checklist/Coding
Designing a good observation schedule
Can be adapted from other studies or made up new
It should be:
Objective
Cover all possible behaviors, avoid a ‘catch all category’;
Have no overlapping categories
A pilot study is vital to designing an effective observation schedule; to operationalise and finalize the behaviours that will be observed

17. Data Sampling
When observation has lasted for hours, would be too time consuming to code it all, hence researchers take a sample from the data.
Time sampling: observing for a specific time (e.g. 15 min outs of every hour)
Point sampling: observing what participants are doing at particular point in time (e.g. every 5 minutes) observe one long enough to record a category of behavior before moving to the next person
Event sampling: concentrating on specific types of event each time they occur (fight, smile etc.)

18. Qualitative non-participant observation
Can be done by producing a running commentary about the observed behaviour by speaking into a tape recorder
Generates a lot of raw data in qualitative form, but rigid structure imposed during analysis by independent raters trained in a specific coding scheme that reduces qualitative data into frequencies of occurrence.
Qualitative data may also be left as it is and presented alongside quantitative data for illustration purposes or provide new insights (e.g. Milgram)
Sorts of observations made may change during the course of the observation

19. Diary Method
Diaries are kept during most participant observation studies (e.g. Piaget)
Where observation is covert, these will be constructed at the end of each day, from memory or from discreetly jotted notes recorded where opportunities have arisen, (e.g. Sherif Robber’s Cave)
Participants could also be asked to keep their own diaries, which will be later subjected to content analysis by the observer.

20. Role play and Simulation
Participants role-play a situation which is observed
e.g. being a prisoner or guard in Zimbardo’s (1972) prison study.

21. Reliability Something is reliable if the findings are consistent
This can be checked by having two people observe the same behaviour and seeing whether they make the same records (inter- observer reliability)
There should be a correlation between the data they have each gathered
More likely when behaviour categories are clearly defined (operationalised) and observers have received adequate training

22. Validity high on reality, behavior genuine
however if participants aware, behaviour can be affected: Hawthorne effects depend on Pp reactivity
Example: mothers interacted more with children, became more warm and patient.
Reactivity can be reduced by repeating observations; observer becomes familiar, part of the furniture, behaviour becomes more natural; enhances internal validity.
Hidden cameras and one way mirrors: ethical problems
Observations can be reductionist; behaviour is reduced to meaningless frequencies; social context of behaviour lost unless very carefully designed observation schedule