1. Job of assistant 1: Pancreas
Endocrine (“Endo-” = within) function: secretes insulin & glucagon
Help keep blood glucose level within normal limits
Exocrine (“Exo-” = from outside) function: pancreatic cells produce pancreatic juice
Juice contains: 1) Sodium bicarbonate: neutralizes acid chime from stomach
2) Digestive enzymes: amylase digesting starch, trypsin digesting protein, lipase digesting fat

2. Regular Blood Glucose Levels
High Glucose Levels
(Hyperglycemia)
Pancreas releases INSULIN → Storage of glucose as glycogen in Liver & Muscles
Regular Blood Glucose Levels
(Homeostasis)
Pancreas releases GLUCAGON→ Release of glucose from breaking down glycogen in Liver & Muscles
Low Glucose Levels
(Hypoglycemia)

3. Pancreas in detail

4. Diabetes mellitus
Most body cells are unable to take up glucose as they should
Diabetics’ glucose levels remain elevated for several hours
Cells have no glucose although there are plenty of glucose molecules in the blood

5. Type 1 Diabetes (insulin-dependent)
Pancreas does not produce insulin
Cause: a virus which causes cytotoxic T cells to destroy pancreatic islets
Fat is used as main source of energy, which leads to a build up of ketones (acidic) in the blood
Injection of insulin required, but with overdose of insulin or missing a meal, hypoglycemia can result
Symptoms of hypoglycemia: perspiration, pale skin, shallow breathing, anxiety
Pancreas transplants possible

7. Type 2 Diabetes (insulin-resistant)
Obesity can lead to type 2 because adipose tissue produces a substance that impairs insulin receptor function
Blood insulin level = low
Cells do not have enough insulin receptors
Prevention by diet/life-style changes possible
If left untreated, effects can be as serious as type 1

8. Long-term complications of both types
Blindness
Kidney disease
Cardiovascular disorders
Atherosclerosis
Heart disease
Stroke
Reduced circulation

9. What do these organs look like in real life?
Look at the microscopic slides of:
Pancreatic islet cells
Draw what you see
Label parts using the internet/textbook
Relate structure to function

10. Job of assistant 2: Liver (“hepatic”)
Largest gland in the body
Upper right section of abdominal cavity, under diaphragm
Approximately 100, 000 lobules
Triads in between lobules:
Bile duct = takes bile away from the liver
Hepatic artery = brings oxygen rich blood to liver
Hepatic portal vein = transports nutrients from intestines

12. Job of assistant 2: Liver (“hepatic”)
Removes poisonous substances from the blood coming through the hepatic portal vein
Bile production and excretion
Metabolism of fats (glycerol → glucose), proteins (amino acids→ glucose), and carbohydrates (maintains blood glucose level at about 0.1 %)
Enzyme activation
Storage of glycogen, vitamins (A, D, E, K and B12), iron and minerals
Synthesis of plasma proteins (helps regulate cholesterol level), such as albumin, and clotting factors

13. What is Bile? Dark green to yellowish brown liquid
Stored in the Gallbladder
Bile acids, salts, phospholipids, cholesterol, pigments, water, electrolyte chemicals
Emulsifies fats: sound familiar?

14. What do these organs look like in real life?
Look at the microscopic slides of:
Hepatic lobule
Draw what you see
Label parts using the internet/textbook
Relate structure to function

15. Failure of assistant 2: Liver
Hepatitis
Inflammation of the liver
A: usually from sewage-contaminated drinking water
B: usually spread by sexual contact, blood transfusions or contaminated needles
C: usually spread by contact with infected blood
Can result in “Jaundice” = yellowish tint to whites of eyes or skin due to bilirubin deposited in the skin
Can result in chronic hepatitis, liver cancer

16. Failure of assistant 2: Liver
2. Cirrhosis
Organs become fatty → Liver tissue replaced by inactive fibrous scar tissue
Often in alcoholics: malnutrition and excessive amounts of alcohol
Liver transplantation preferred treatment for liver failure
Liver can regenerate itself just from 25% of its original mass

17. Job of assistant 3: Gallbladder
Pear-shaped, muscular sac attached to surface of the liver
About 1 L or bile produced by liver each day, therefore any excess bile is stored in the gallbladder
Water reabsorbed from bile
Bile becomes thick, mucus-like
Cholesterol in bile can come out of solution → Form crystals → Crystals grow in size → Gall-stones → Gallbladder passage (common bile duct) blocked → Obstructive jaundice