1. Copyright © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
Kinesiology: The Skeletal System and Muscle Function
Second Edition
Joseph E. Muscolino, DC
Instructor, Purchase College
State University of New York
Owner, The Art and Science of Kinesiology
Stamford, Connecticut
Copyright © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
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2. Chapter 2: Mapping the Human Body
Joseph E. Muscolino, DC
 Chapter 2 introduces the concepts of anatomic position, planes, and axes. It also introduces descriptive terms that are used to locate body structures and points on the body. These terms and concepts allow students to accurately describe the movements of body parts.
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3. Copyright © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
Lesson 2.1 Objectives
Define the key terms of this chapter and state the meanings of the word origins of this chapter.
Describe and explain the importance of anatomic position.
Explain how location terminology can be used to map the body.
● The textbook has a list of key terms and word origins for each chapter. Most of these terms will become familiar as the material is covered, but reviewing them, especially the word origins, before reading the chapter can be helpful. Definitions for the key terms are available from the Evolve Website.
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4. Lesson 2.1 Objectives (cont’d.)
List and apply the following pairs of terms that describe relative location on the human body: anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, superior/inferior, proximal/distal, and superficial/deep.
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5. Lesson 2.1 Objectives (cont’d.)
List and apply the following additional pairs of terms that describe relative location on the human body: ventral/dorsal, volar/dorsal, radial/ulnar, tibial/fibular, plantar/dorsal, and palmar/dorsal.
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6. Lesson 2.1 Objectives (cont’d.)
List and describe the three cardinal planes.
Explain the concept of an oblique plane.
Explain how motion occurs within a plane and give an example of motion occurring in each of the three cardinal planes and in an oblique plane.
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7. Section 2.1—Anatomic Position
● Although the human body can assume any number of positions, one position is used as a reference for mapping the body. This position is known as the anatomic position. Anatomic position is the base position from which directions of location and directions of movement are initially defined. Therefore, anatomic position is crucial to understanding static directional terminology and joint action movement terminology.
● In anatomic position, the person is positioned as shown in Figure 2-1 on this slide: facing forward, arms at the sides, palms facing forward, and fingers and thumbs extended.
Figure 2-1
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8. Section 2.2—Location Terminology
● Correct use of specific location terminology is crucial to the fast and efficient communication of information about a client’s condition to other healthcare professionals.
● Descriptions of the locations of structures of the human body and points on the body are always made in reference to anatomic position. Describing a location on the human body involves using specific directional terms that describe the location of one structure or point relative to another structure or point on the body. These directional terms always come in pairs and are similar to terms such as north/south and east/west.
● In essence we are mapping the human body and using specific terminology to describe points on this map.
● Terms for relative location can be combined. For example, a point on the body may be both anterior and medial to another point so the term anteromedial can be used.
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9. Section 2.3—Anterior/Posterior
Ventral
Dorsal
Volar
● What do the terms anterior and posterior mean?
Anterior means farther to the front of the body, and posterior means farther to the back of the body. These terms can be used for the whole body. Examples: The sternum is anterior to the spine. The spine is posterior to the sternum.
● What do the terms ventral, dorsal, and volar mean?
Ventral refers to the softer, fleshier surface of a body part, and dorsal, in this context, refers to the harder, firmer surface of a body part (opposite to the ventral side). Volar is occasionally used in place of anterior when referring to the hand region of the body, and then dorsal, in this context, is used as the opposite term for volar.
Figure 2-2
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10. Section 2.4—Medial/Lateral
Ulnar
Radial
Tibial
Fibular
● What do the terms medial and lateral mean?
The imaginary line that divides the body into left and right halves is created by the midsagittal plane. Medial means closer to the midsagittal plane, and lateral means farther from the midsagittal plane. These terms can be used for the whole body. Examples: The humerus is lateral to the sternum. The sternum is medial to the humerus.
● In the forearm and the hand, the terms radial and ulnar can be used instead of medial and lateral. Ulnar means closer to the ulna, which is more medial. Radial means closer to the radius, which is more lateral. In the leg, the terms tibial and fibular can be used instead of medial and lateral. Tibial means closer to the tibia, which is more medial. Fibular means closer to the fibula, which is more lateral.
Figure 2-3
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11. Section 2.5—Superior/Inferior
● What do the terms superior and inferior mean?
Superior means above, and inferior means below.
● When can the terms superior and inferior be used?
Superior and inferior can only be used to refer to axial body parts.
● Examples: The head is superior to the trunk. The trunk is inferior to the head. The nose is superior to the chin, and the nose is inferior to the eyes.
Figure 2-4A
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12. Section 2.5—Proximal/Distal
● What do the terms proximal and distal mean, and when can they be used?
Proximal means closer to the axial body, and distal means farther from the axial body. Proximal and distal can only be used to refer to appendicular body parts.
● Examples: The arm is proximal to the forearm. The forearm is distal to the arm. The knee joint is proximal to the ankle joint, and the knee joint is distal to the thigh.
● When a structure (for example, a muscle) attaches from the axial body to the appendicular body, do not mix the two sets of terms, superior/inferior and proximal/distal.
Figure 2-4B
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13. Section 2.6—Superficial/Deep
● What do the terms superficial and deep mean, and when can they be used?
Superficial means closer to the surface of the body, and deep means farther from the surface of the body.
● When can the terms superficial and deep be used?
Superficial and deep can be used to refer to any body parts, but the perspective MUST be specified. This is important because one structure may be deep to another structure from one perspective but not deep to it from another perspective.
● Examples: The anterior abdominal wall muscles are superficial to the intestines. The intestines are deep to the anterior abdominal wall muscles.
Figure 2-5
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14. Section 2.7—Location Terminology
Palmar
Dorsal
Plantar
● Palmar means toward the front of the body, and it is often used in place of anterior when referencing points on the hand. Dorsal, in this context, means toward the back of the body, and it is often used in place of posterior when referencing points on the hand.
● Plantar refers to the bottom surface of the foot. Dorsal, in this context, refers to the top surface of the foot.
● Remember that superior/inferior can only be used for the axial body and proximal/distal can only be used for the appendicular body. Also, remember that naming the perspective is crucial when using the terms superficial and deep.
Figure 2-6
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15. Copyright © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
Section 2.8—Planes
Types of Planes:
Cardinal planes
Sagittal planes
Frontal planes
Transverse planes
Oblique planes
● Planes are important because the motion of body parts takes place within planes.
● There are three types of cardinal planes: sagittal planes, frontal planes, and transverse planes. Oblique planes are any planes that cannot be classified as one of the cardinal planes. An infinite number of each of these types of planes exists.
● If a cube is imagined, then it can be seen that it has three dimensions. The front and back surfaces of the cube are frontal planes, the side surfaces are sagittal planes, and the top and bottom surfaces are transverse planes.
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16. Section 2.8—Planes (cont’d.)
Sagittal Planes
● A sagittal plane divides the body into left and right portions. If a body part moves in an anterior to posterior (or posterior to anterior) direction, this motion takes place in a sagittal plane.
● The sagittal plane that is located down the center of the body and divides the body into equal left and right halves is known as the midsagittal plane.
● Sagittal planes are oriented vertically, and an infinite number of sagittal planes are possible. Two of these possible planes are shown here in Figure 2-7a.
Figure 2-7A
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17. Section 2.8—Planes (cont’d.)
Frontal Planes
● A frontal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior portions. If a body part moves in a left to right (or right to left) direction, this motion takes place in a frontal plane. Frontal planes are also known as coronal planes.
● The movement of a body part from left to right (or right to left) could also be described as motion of a body part in the medial to lateral (or lateral to medial) direction.
● Frontal planes are oriented vertically, and an infinite number of frontal planes are possible. Two of these possible planes are shown here in Figure 2-7b.
Figure 2-7B
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18. Section 2.8—Planes (cont’d.)
Transverse Planes
● A transverse plane divides the body into (upper) superior/proximal and (lower) inferior/distal portions. If a body part stays in place and spins (rotates), this motion takes place in a transverse plane. Transverse planes are also known as horizontal planes.
● Transverse planes are oriented horizontally, and an infinite number of transverse planes are possible. Two of these possible planes are shown here in Figure 2-7c.
Figure 2-7C
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19. Section 2.8—Planes (cont’d.)
Oblique Planes
● Any plane that is not purely sagittal, frontal, or transverse is called an oblique plane. This occurs when the motion takes place in a plane that has components of two or three of the cardinal planes.
● An infinite number of oblique planes is possible. Two of these possible planes are shown here in Figure 2-7d.
Figure 2-7D
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20. Section 2.9—Motion in Planes
Sagittal Planes
● Figure 2-8a shows two examples of motion taking place in a sagittal plane. What is another example of a motion that takes place in a sagittal plane?
Flexion of the arm (moving anteriorly) at the shoulder joint takes place within a sagittal plane.
● All sagittal planes are parallel to each other. That is, if the planes were infinitely large, they would never intersect each other.
Figure 2-8A
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21. Section 2.9—Motion in Planes (cont’d.)
Frontal Planes
● Figure 2-8b shows two examples of motion taking place in a frontal plane. What is another example of a motion that takes place in a frontal plane?
Abduction of the thigh (moving laterally away from the midline) at the hip joint takes place within a frontal plane.
● All frontal planes are parallel to each other. That is, if the planes were infinitely large, they would never intersect each other.
Figure 2-8B
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22. Section 2.9—Motion in Planes (cont’d.)
Transverse Planes
● Figure 2-8c shows two examples of motion taking place in a transverse plane. What is another example of a motion that takes place in a transverse plane?
Lateral rotation of the thigh (rotating away from the midline) at the hip joint takes place within a transverse plane.
● All transverse planes are parallel to each other. That is, if the planes were infinitely large, they would never intersect each other.
Figure 2-8C
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23. Section 2.9—Motion in Planes (cont’d.)
Oblique Planes
● Figure 2-8d shows two examples of motion taking place in an oblique plane. What is another example of a motion that takes place in an oblique plane?
A movement of the thigh that is a combination of extension (moving posteriorly) and abduction (moving away from the midline) at the hip joint takes place within an oblique plane.
● Oblique planes are not necessarily parallel to each other. That is, if two oblique planes were infinitely large, they would probably intersect each other.
Figure 2-8D
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24. Copyright © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
Lesson 2.2 Objectives
Define what an axis is and explain how motion can occur relative to an axis.
List the axes that correspond to each of the three cardinal planes.
Determine the axis for an oblique plane.
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25. Lesson 2.2 Objectives (cont’d.)
Give an example of motion occurring within each of the three cardinal planes and around each of the three cardinal axes.
Draw an analogy between the hinge pin of a door and the pin of a pinwheel to the axis of movement for each of the three cardinal planes.
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26. Copyright © 2011, 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
Section 2.10—Axes
Types of Axes:
Cardinal axes
Mediolateral axes
Anteroposterior axes
Superoinferior axes
Oblique axes
Figure 2-9
● An axis is an imaginary line around which a body part moves. The plural of axis is axes. Movement around an axis is called axial movement. This is demonstrated here in Figure 2-9. Axes are important because axial movements occur around them. Nonaxial movements do not. Axes are always perpendicular to the plane of motion.
● There are four types of axes. There are three types of cardinal axes: mediolateral axes, anteroposterior axes, and superoinferior axes (vertical). An oblique axis is an axis that is associated with motion that takes place in an oblique plane. An infinite number of each of these types of axes exists.
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27. Section 2.11—Planes and Their Corresponding Axes
Mediolateral Axes
● A mediolateral axis is a line that runs from medial to lateral (or lateral to medial) in direction, as shown in Figure 2-10a.
● With which type of plane is this axis associated?
Movements that occur in a sagittal plane move around a mediolateral axis. A mediolateral axis is perpendicular to (at a right angle to) its sagittal plane.
● A mediolateral axis is also known as a frontal-horizontal axis because it runs horizontally and is located within the frontal plane.
Figure 2-10A
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28. Section 2.11—Planes and Their Corresponding Axes (cont’d.)
Anteroposterior Axes
● An anteroposterior axis is a line that runs anterior to posterior (or posterior to anterior) in direction, as shown in Figure 2-10b.
● With which type of plane is this axis associated?
Movements that occur in a frontal plane move around an anteroposterior axis. An anteroposterior axis is perpendicular to (at a right angle to) its frontal plane.
● An anteroposterior axis is also known as a sagittal-horizontal axis because it runs horizontally and is located within the sagittal plane.
Figure 2-10B
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29. Section 2.11—Planes and Their Corresponding Axes (cont’d.)
Superoinferior Axes
● A superoinferior axis is a line that runs from superior to inferior (or inferior to superior) in direction, as shown in Figure 2-10c.
● With which type of plane is this axis associated?
Movements that occur in a transverse plane move around a superoinferior axis. A superoinferior axis is perpendicular to (at a right angle to) its transverse plane.
● A superoinferior axis is more commonly referred to as the vertical axis because it runs vertically.
Figure 2-10C
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30. Section 2.11—Planes and Their Corresponding Axes (cont’d.)
Oblique Axes
● For every motion that occurs within an oblique plane, a corresponding oblique axis exists. The oblique axis for an oblique plane can be found by remembering this useful rule: the axis around which the movement occurs is always perpendicular to (at a right angle to) the plane in which the motion is occurring. (This rule is also true for cardinal axes and planes.)
● An oblique axis is shown here in Figure 2-10d.
● It is important to become comfortable with axes because, when an axial joint action occurs, the body part that is moving moves through a plane and the movement takes place around an axis.
Figure 2-10D
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31. Section 2.12—Door Hinge Pin Analogy
● To help visualize an axis for motion, the visual analogy of a door hinge pin may be useful. An axis may be thought of as the hinge pin of a door. Just as the door’s motion occurs around its hinge pin, the motion of a body part occurs around its axis.
● The three images shown here (Figure 2-11) show movement taking place in each of the three cardinal planes around each of the three cardinal axes.
Figure 2-11
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32. Section 2.13—Pinwheel Analogy
● To help visualize an axis for motion, the visual analogy of a pinwheel may also be useful. An axis may be thought of as the pin of a pinwheel, just as a plane may be thought of as the wheel of the pinwheel. When a pinwheel is blown, the wheel of the pinwheel spins in a plane, and the pin of the pinwheel is the axis about which the wheel spins.
● The three images shown here (Figure 2-12) show movement taking place in each of the three cardinal planes around each of the three cardinal axes.
Figure 2-12
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