1. Cross-cultural ideas
If Bowbly’s view that attachments have evolved is true then you would expect to see similar patterns of attachment cross-culturally.
However, if patterns of attachment differ cross-culturally then it is better explained by learned environmental cultural differences rather than biologically passed down through evolution.
There are differences in how attachment types are viewed. E.g the insecure avoidant attachment type is viewed negatively in Britain but in Germany it is valued as it seen as babies being independent. Not surprisingly more infants in Germany are classed as being insecure-avoidant.

2. Cultural Variations in Attachment

3. How might attachment differ across these cultures? Why?
An individualistic culture is one which emphasises personal independence and achievement at the expense of group goals, resulting in a strong sense of competition
How might attachment differ across these cultures? Why?
A collectivist culture is one which emphasises family and work goals above individual needs and desires, there is a high degree of interdependence between people

4. Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988)
Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg carried out a META-ANALYSIS to find out about attachments types in different cultures.
A META-ANALYSIS is a research method in which a research team collates and analyses data from many studies carried out by other researchers. This makes it possible to gain a broad overview of findings.
Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg wanted to find out:
Whether the proportions of secure (B), insecure avoidant (A) and insecure resistant (C) children were the same in all cultures
How much inter-cultural variation in attachment types exists.

5. Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988)
Star Study
TASK:
Using textbooks complete the sheet with details of this classical study.

6. TASK: produce a graph of the results shown in this table (ignore the overall mean).
Highest percentage of securely attached:
Great Britain
Lowest percentage of securely attached:
China
Results
Highest percentage of insecure - avoidant:
Germany
Lowest percentage of insecure - avoidant Japan
Highest percentage of insecure - resistant:
Japan
Lowest percentage of insecure - resistant:
Great Britain

7. Further points to consider....
Important not to judge other cultures from our own perspective
Japan – children rarely separated from mother – find SSC very stressful
‘Avoidant’ behaviour very rude – actively discouraged
Germany – greater personal distance is the norm; proximity seeking not encouraged

8. Evaluation: Strengths
It was a truly cross-cultural study, because although many cultures weren’t represented Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg did make sure to obtain a mix of collectivist and individualist cultures for comparison. This means the aim of the study was achieved.
As the studies were based on the Strange Situation technique, so long as the different researchers carried out the technique exactly as it was first designed they should all have controlled variables etc. in the same way, meaning that the different researchers’ findings could be compared.

9. Evaluation: limitations
This was a Western technique, suitable for Western children, imposed on different cultures. This might have led to some children being highly stressed, making them appear insecure resistant when in fact they were really securely attached, e.g. in Japan.
Some of the samples were very small. For instance, only one study in the UK, Sweden and China. To base a judgement about attachment types of a whole nation of children on one study may result in biased conclusions, as the sample used might not be representative of the whole population.

10. Exam Question: Summarise the table below (6 marks)
Country
Number of Studies
Secure (%)
Avoidant (%)
Ambivalent (%)
Great Britain 1
75.0
22.2
2.8 US 18
64.8
21.1
14.1
Japan 2
67.7
5.2
27.1
West Germany 3
56.6
35.3
8.1

11. Why these results? Country Number of Studies Secure (%) Avoidant (%)
Ambivalent (%)
Great Britain 1
75.0
22.2
2.8 US 18
64.8
21.1
14.1
Japan 2
67.7
5.2
27.1
West Germany 3
56.6
35.3
8.1
Great Britain and the US are individualistic – we encourage independence and not being reliant on others, hence the exploration behaviour. Many children are used to being in day care but yet not used to strangers, which could explain the avoidant behaviour on separation

12. Why these results? Country Number of Studies Secure (%) Avoidant (%)
Ambivalent (%)
Great Britain 1
75.0
22.2
2.8 US 18
64.8
21.1
14.1
Japan 2
67.7
5.2
27.1
West Germany 3
56.6
35.3
8.1
Japan is a collectivist culture. Japanese children are very rarely left by their mother. So the distress they show when she leaves is probably more due to shock than it is to insecure attachment. The distress they show when left alone with the stranger is also more likely to be due to absence of the mother.

13. Why these results? Country Number of Studies Secure (%) Avoidant (%)
Ambivalent (%)
Great Britain 1
75.0
22.2
2.8 US 18
64.8
21.1
14.1
Japan 2
67.7
5.2
27.1
West Germany 3
56.6
35.3
8.1
The German study highlights a high percentage of avoidant behaviour, typical of independent children. This is not surprising given that Grossmann et al (1985) say that German parents seek ‘independent, non-clingy infants, who do not make demands on parents, but obey their commands.’

14. Differences within (Intra) a Culture
This demonstrates that it is an over-simplification to assume that all children are brought up in exactly the same way within a country or culture

15. Other Research
Simonella (2014) – conducted a study in Italy using the strange situation. Only 50% of infants were securely attached.
The researchers suggest this change could be due to increasing numbers of mothers working longer hours.

16. Applied Exam Question
Helga and Lars have recently moved from England to Germany with their son Kurt. They take part in attachment research at their local university and hear that Kurt has insecure-avoidant attachment. Should Helga and Lars be concerned? Is this unusual? (4 marks)

17. Homework/activity
Evaluate the Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) study (6 marks)

18. Exam Questions
Explain how Van Ijzendoorn studied cultural variations in attachment (4 marks)
Describe what research has shown about cultural variations in attachment (6 marks)
Explain one criticism of research into cultural variations in attachment (3 marks)
Describe and evaluate research into cultural variations in attachment (12 marks)