1. American Government and Politics
Chapter 9: Campaigns
and Elections

2. Elections form the foundation of a modern democracy, and more elections are scheduled every year in the United States than in any other country in the world. Collectively on all levels of government, Americans fill more than 500,000 different public offices.

3. 4 FUNCTIONS OF ELECTIONS
Elections choose political leaders from a competitive field of candidates
Elections are also an important form of political participation, with voting in presidential elections one of the most common types of participation by the American public in the political process.
Elections give individuals a regular opportunity to replace leaders without overthrowing them, thus making elected officials accountable for their actions.

4. Elections legitimize positions of power in the political system because people accept elections as a fair method for selecting political leaders.

5. GUIDELINES FOR ELECTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES
The Constitution provides for the election of members of the Housed of Representatives every two years, and it creates and defines the electoral college.
By law Congress sets the date for national elections – the Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
However, most electoral guidelines and rules are still set by the individual states.

6. How Are Elections Conducted?
Ballots
Office-block ballot groups candidates for elective office together under the title of the office
States that use the party-column ballot list candidates in columns arranged by political parties
Voting by Mail
Vote Fraud
Failure to purge the electoral rolls of voters who have died or moved opens up possibilities of fraud.
Mistakes by Voting Officials. In some locales voting officials have purged many legitimate voters from the rolls by mistake.

7. Primary Elections Types of Primaries Closed, open, blanket, runoff
Front-Loading the Primaries. Each state determines the date for its primary or caucus
Because early primaries are more influential, states have competed to schedule their primaries as early as possible
By choosing the nominees so early, there is a long lull in the news between the primaries and the national conventions.

8. closed primaries - A voter must declare in advance his or her party membership, and on election day votes in that party's election. Most states have closed primaries.
open primaries - A voter can decide when he or she enters the voting booth which party's primary to participate in. Only a few states have open primaries.
blanket (or free-love) primaries - A voter marks a ballot that lists candidates for all parties, and can select the Republican for one office and a Democrat for another. Only three states have this type - Louisiana, Washington, and Alaska

9. The National Convention
Seating the Delegates.
A credentials committee approves all delegates. This is usually not controversial but there have been disputed delegations in the past.
Convention Activities
The highlight of the convention is the nomination of the presidential candidate. Because the identity of the nominee is a foregone conclusion, the TV networks have drastically curtailed their coverage of the conventions in recent years.

10. The Twenty-First Century Campaign
The Changing Campaign
Before most households had televisions, campaigning was personalized. Campaigns today are often less personal, with voters receiving information through the media.
In the recent decades campaigns have become less party-centered and more candidate-centered.
The Professional Campaign
It is now commonplace for candidates even for local offices to hire consultants for their campaigns.

11. The Strategy of Winning
Candidate Visibility and Appeal
The Use of Opinion Polls
Focus Groups

13. Costs of campaigns, 2000 All House and Senate campaigns: $1 billion
Average winning House race: $847,000
Average winning Senate race: $7.2 million

14. Money and Politics: Questions
How do candidates raise and spend campaign funds?
How does the government regulate campaign spending?
How does money affect how certain social groups achieve electoral success? 21

15. Sources of Campaign Funds
The Federal Election Commission monitors campaign fundraising
Sources of funds include:
Direct Mail
Political Action Committees
The Candidates
Parties and Soft Money
Public Funding 23

16. Why do people give money?
Big donors (>$500)
Small donors (<$100)
Middle aged
Young & very old
Very wealthy
More middle class
Solicited by friends, contacted in person
Give unsolicited $, solicited in direct mail
Give for social, ideological reasons AND consider likelihood of winning
Give for mostly expressive/ideological reasons
Much more likely to ask others to contribute
May be involved through internet or grassroots

17. What has Congress said? 1971 FECA 1974 FECA Amendments
First disclosure rules
Limits candidate self-contributions
Limits media expenditures
1974 FECA Amendments
Presidential election public funding with spending caps
Limits independent expenditures
PAC and individual contribution limits (Hard Money)
More disclosure requirements
Creates Federal Election Commission

18. The 1976 Amendments allowed corporations, labor unions, and special interest groups to set up political action committees (PACs) to raise money for candidates. Each corporation or labor union is limited to one PAC. 

19. PAC Contributions to Congressional Candidates 1986-2004

20. PAC Candidate “A” Candidate “B” State Party Committee
Individual Contributor
Candidate “A”
Individual Contributor $
Individual Contributor $
Candidate “B” $
Individual Contributor $ $
PAC
State Party Committee
Individual Contributor $
Individual Contributor $
National Party Committee $ $
Individual Contributor
Individual Contributor
TV & Radio Ads
Individual Contributor
Individuals can contribute a maximum of $5,000 to a PAC per year

21. Buckley v. Valeo
Challenge to the 1971 FECA which placed limits on how much money a candidate could spend on his or her own campaign.
In 1976, the Supreme Court ruled that this provision was unconstitutional.
“The candidate, no less than any other person, has a First Amendment right to engage in the discussion of public issues and vigorously and tirelessly to advocate his own election.”

22. Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA)
Bans national party soft money
Limits state party soft money
Raises hard money limits

23. Hard Money limits under BCRA
Individuals:
Can give $2,000 per candidate per campaign
Can give $25,000 to a party, per year
Can give a maximum of $95,000 to candidates, parties, and PACs
PACs:
Still can give $5,000 to each candidate
Still can give $15,000 to each party
No limit on overall contributions

24. The 2002 restrictions of contributions to parties led to the “527” phenomenon of the 2004 presidential campaign.
These independent but heavily partisan groups gathered millions of dollars in campaign contributions for both Democratic and Republican candidates.

25. 527 TV & Radio Ads Literature $ $ $ $ $
Individual Contributor
Individual Contributor $
Individual Contributor
TV & Radio Ads $
Individual Contributor
527
Individual Contributor $
Individual Contributor $
Literature
Individual Contributor $
Individual Contributor
Individual Contributor
There is no limit on the amount of money that individuals can contribute to 527s

26. Top Ten Democratic 527s in 2004
America Coming Together - NonFederal Account
79,795,487
Joint Victory Campaign 2004
71,811,666
The Media Fund
59,404,183
Service Employees International Union Political Education & Action Fund
48,426,867
AFSCME Special Account
25,144,915
MoveOn.org Voter Fund
12,558,215
New Democrat Network Non Federal Account
12,726,158
Citizens for a Strong Senate
10,853,730
Sierra Club Voter Education Fund
87,271,27
EMILYS List Non Federal
77,399,46

27. Top Ten Republican 527s, 2004 Progress for America Voter Fund
44,929,178
Swift Boat Vets and POWs for Truth
25,758,413
Club for Growth
19,365,903
College Republican National Committee, Inc.
16,830,651
Club for Growth.net
4,115,037
National Association of Realtors 527 Fund
3,215,263
The November Fund
3,151,170
CA Republican National Convention Delegation 2004 Account
4,393,055
Republican Leadership Coalition, Inc.
2,365,550
National Federation of Republican Women
2,201,533

28. Soft Money Raised by Parties, 1993-2002

29. Citizens United vs. FEC
Overrules the ban on independent expenditures paid for by corporations or unions out of their treasuries 60 days before an election
Overturns ban on independent expenditures from corporate and union treasuries
"If the First Amendment has any force, it prohibits Congress from fining or jailing citizens, or associations of citizens, for simply engaging in political speech," - Justice Kennedy

32. Running for House of Representatives
Every two years all members run.
Downside to every two years?
Primary Race (same party)
Running for the General Election.
Incumbents v. Challengers.
Advantage?
Safe Seats?
Coattails
Midterm Elections

34. Running for the Senate Run every 6 years - staggered.
Two from each state.
Incumbents have an unbelievable advantage.
There is often not a primary from your own party.
Very little coattail impact.
There are many safe seats.
The average Senate election costs over $300 Million.

35. Running for the Presidency
Deciding to run.
Presidential Primaries - for Party Nomination.
National Party Convention.
Party Platform
Vice-President
Presidential debates
Fundraising - all throughout process
Strategy for Electoral College Win

36. Voter Turnout

37. Voter Turnout
Voter participation in the United States is low compared with other countries. In congressional elections in years when a president is not elected, the turnout rates are lower. Turnout rates are even lower yet for most local elections.

38. Restrictions on Voting
Historical Restrictions
Property Requirements
Further Extensions of the Franchise
Is the Franchise Still Too Restrictive?
Current Eligibility and Registration Requirements

39. Factors Influencing Who Votes
Age.
Education
Minority status
Income
Party competition

40. Factors Influencing who votes

41. Why People Do Not Vote
Uninformative media coverage and negative campaigning
Apathy
External Efficacy
Loss of Confidence
Poor Choices