1. Argument and Fallacies
Mrs. Gatz
English 9

2. What is Argument?
When we say “argument”, we don’t mean this:

3. What is Argument?
For our purposes, an argument is an opinion about an issue (or topic) and the reasons for that opinion.

4. Argument = Claim + Reasons
What is Argument?
There are three parts to every argument.
Issue- the topic
Claim- Your opinion or belief
Reasons- Evidence and/or what led you to think the way you do
Ex. The legal drinking age should not be lowered because a lower drinking age will increase youth alcohol consumption and alcohol-related traffic incidents.
Argument = Claim + Reasons

5. Counterargument
Counterargument: What other people think. An objection to your claim, or the argument against your claim. Ex. The legal drinking age should be lowered because…

6. Rebuttal
Your response to the counterarguments is called your rebuttal. Here you attempt to disprove your opponent’s argument.

7. Evidence Evidence is proof of a claim. Types
Statistical- involving numbers
Testimonial- from an expert or perceived expert
Anecdotal- based on someone’s personal observations
Analogical- uses comparison

8. Two Types of Learners
Sponges
Prospectors

9. Two Types of Learners Sponges Absorb what they read/hear/see
Value quantity over quality; takes LOTS of notes
Form conclusions without evaluating sources
Unaware of fallacious reasoning
Prospectors
Question what they read/hear/see
Value quality over quantity; takes RELEVANT notes
Evaluate sources before accepting information as fact
Identify fallacious reasoning

10. Beware of Faulty Reasoning: Fallacies
What are fallacies?
Statements which
sound logical and
factual, but are not.
Fallacies make your
argument less valid.
Many advertisements rely on your inability to recognize fallacies. Sometimes that is just for fun; other times it’s just bad reasoning. But sometimes it’s meant to mess with your head!

11. Faulty Emotional Appeal
Appeals to the emotions
of an audience which are
irrelevant to the argument
or draw attention form
the issue being argued.
NOTE: Sometimes emotional appeals can be okay, but make sure they reinforce your argument, not replace it.
This WWII propaganda shows American children nearly touched by the Nazi schwastika. The ad wants you to buy war bonds, which really have nothing to do with Nazis, but the subject matter of the ad might make you frightened for the little children, which in turn would make you want to buy the war bonds.

12. Hasty Generalization Coming to a conclusion on the basis of
insufficient
evidence.
This is like stereotyping. Ex. “All students who wear black listen to death metal.”

13. Is this Hasty Generalization?
“Every single pit bull I have ever seen was sweet and gentle. The pit bull breed must be kind-hearted by nature.”

14. Name-Calling (ad hominem or “the man”)
Attacking the person who
holds the view rather
than the view
itself.
*Sound familiar?
Attacking an opponent’s personal life instead of attacking his or her belief or view.

15. Name-Calling (ad hominem)
“I know everybody thinks Einstein’s Theory of Relativity is correct, but I can’t accept it; Einstein didn’t even comb his hair!”
Someone may have or have had character flaws, but his argument can still be valid.

16. Straw Man Fallacy
Changing or exaggerating an opponent’s argument to make it easier to disprove.
Ex.
MOM: I think you’ve spent too much time playing video games today.
SON: Oh, so I should just throw away my new XBOX1 and do math homework all day?!

17. Black-White (Either/Or) Fallacy
Describing a situation as if there were only two choices when in fact there may be several.
Ex. “Only real men love football.”
Only two options are offered. The assertion is that you can only be a real man if you love football. If you don’t you’re not a real man. There are of course men who don’t love football. There are men who just like football. And there are men who sort of like football. There are men who don’t like it. And there are men who hate it. There are more than two choices available, but the speaker is acting as if there are only two.

18. Either/Or #2
“The cafeteria is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and build a brand new one, or we continue to risk students’ safety. We’ll have to tear it down.”

19. False Cause and Effect
Saying that because event B followed event A, A caused B.
Ex. Since he started eating
Cheerios for breakfast (A),
Michael has been getting
better grades (B). Cheerios
must have made him
smarter!

20. Faulty Use of Authority
Attempt to support claims by citing
the opinions of
experts.
It’s a fallacy when the
individuals cited have
no expertise on the
issue.
NOTE: This is also called celebrity
endorsement or testimonial, and it is often
used by advertisers to sell a product. This can
be used to support a logical argument,
but make sure the authority figure is
actually an authority in the subject you are
discussing.
What does Chuck Norris know about hamsters?
This does not mean if a person does have some sort of expertise that it is a fallacy. This only occurs when the person is not an expert on the issue or topic at hand.

21. Circular Reasoning
A statement that assumes that the question being argued has already been proved.
Ex. "Vegetarianism is good
for you because you cut
out all meat from your
diet."
This assumes that cutting the meat out of your diet is good for you. This person has offered no proof of that, so this is a fallacy.

22. Slippery Slope
An arguer predicts that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a second, usually undesirable step
Ex. "We have to stop
the tuition increase!
The next thing you
know, they'll be
charging $90,000 a
semester!"
In slippery slope, an arguer feels that one step will lead to an undesirable second.

23. Slippery Slope #2
“If congress passes this law requiring trigger locks on guns, next they’ll tell us to register our guns. Then they’ll know exactly who to confiscate them from. And when only outlaws have guns, they’ll have nothing to fear.”

24. Red Herring
Avoiding the question and asserting something irrelevant to the issue.
Ex. SON: Why can’t I go see the movie The Day of the Spatulas with my friends?
DAD: Because January 1st is on a Friday this year.
A red herring is a dead fish that smells pretty bad. In this fallacy, it’s a symbol of an argument that has nothing to do with the original argument.

25. Red Herring #2
“Sparkledent is great for reducing cavities. Dentists say cavities are the number one dental problem in America.”

26. Remember This…
Effective persuasion is always built on logical appeals and evidence—REAL evidence.
Emotional appeals can help to reinforce logical arguments, but they can never replace them.
Recognize fallacies when you hear/read/see them!
Avoid fallacies in your own writing and speaking!