1. Memory Psychology 40S C. McMurray

2. Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.

3. The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

4. Memory: 3 Levels of Processing
Preview Question 1: How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process

5. Information Processing Model
Encoding – get information into our brain
Storage – retain that information
Retrieval – get the information back out
(This information processing model was developed by Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin)
Other psychologists have added to this process by suggesting that the first step is a split-second encoding of sensory memory (all the sensory information in the memory system)

6. 3 Storage Systems Sensory Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
Sensory Stimulus

7. How We Encode Reflect on what has happened so far in your day.
What time did you wake up
What did you have for breakfast
What time did you get to school
What was your route to get to psychology class today?
Who have you spoken to today
Clearly, automatic processing happens so effortlessly that it is difficult to turn off. We automatically process information about space, time, and frequency. At any point did you think, “I have to remember these events because Mrs. McMurray might ask me!”

8. Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed. (Automatic Processing)
However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort. (Effortful Processing)

9. Effortful Processing
Committing new information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
© Bananastock/ Alamy

10. What We Encode Encoding by meaning
We need to make what we want to remember meaningful (Semantic Encoding)
2. Encoding by images
We can also remember things that allow us to form a visual image
Encoding by organization
We also remember information when it is organized

11. Encoding Meaning Semantic Encoding
Self-reference Effect – Relating the information to your own life making it personally relevant.
A lot of the material in this course is easy to learn and remember because it is all about behavior and mental processes as they relate to you

12. Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

13. Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.
Chunking
Hierarchies

14. Mnemonics Visual and Organizational Encoding
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory.
Three common mnemonic devices are:
Acronyms
Method of loci
Peg-word system

15. Knuckle mnemonic for the number of days in each month
Knuckle mnemonic for the number of days in each month. Each projecting knuckle represents a 31-day month.

16. Mnemonic Devices Peg Word One bun Two shoe Three tree Four door
Five hive
Six sticks
Seven heaven
Eight gate
Nine swine
Ten hen

17. Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

18. Chunking F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks
The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks

19. Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

20. Review: Encoding
Encoding is translating sensory information into a form in which it can be stored.
Encoding is the first process of memory.

21. Storage Short Term Memory/Working Memory
After information is encoded, it must be stored. Storage is the second process of memory; it is the maintenance of encoded information over time.
The strategies we use for storage are closely related to the strategies we use for encoding.

22. Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)
Our short-term memory is limited in capacity to about seven (unrelated) items and lasts approximately 20 seconds without rehearsal.
Activity: Magical Number 7 plus or minus 2
Short term memory contains information that is “of possible interest.” Information worth holding on to must be rehearsed to transfer it to long-term memory.

23. Rehearsal
To keep information in short-term memory for more than a few seconds, you usually have to repeat the information to yourself, in your mind or out loud.
To demonstrate the impact of rehearsal, write down the gifts in the familiar song “Twelve Days of Christmas”

24. 12 Days of Christmas Partridge Turtle doves French hens Calling birds
5 golden rings
Geese a laying
Swans a swimming
Maids a milking
Ladies dancing
Lords a leaping
Pipers piping
12 drummers drumming

25. Retrieval (Long Term Memory)
Retrieval is the third process of memory; it is the process of locating stored information and returning it to conscious thought. Getting the information OUT!
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval)

26. Long-Term Memory
Long term memory refers to the storage of information over extended periods of time.
Essentially unlimited capacity store.

27. Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images

28. Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.)
Mrs. McMurray’s youngest daughter is ______.

29. Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.)
Name Mrs. McMurray’s youngest daughter.
Sally Sue
Laura
Lorraine
Jimmy John

30. Context Effects
Putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval.
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land
Preview Question 8: How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory retrieval?

31. Moods and Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood (state-dependent memory). Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues. Our memories are mood-congruent.
Mood-congruent memory – the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures

32. Déjà Vu
Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved

33. 2 minute memory game Umbrella Cat Science Swimming Soccer Alice Fish
Math
Andrew
Porcupine
Cat
Alice
Football
English
Beach
Science
Fish
Basketball
Erin
Jordan
Swimming
Water
Bird
Sun
French

34. 2 minute memory game

35. Retrieval Cues
Activity: handout 8-7 Memories may be inaccessible until we have cues for retrieving them. Memory is held in storage by a web of associations. To retrieve a specific memory, you first need to identify one of the strands that leads to it…this process is called PRIMING

36. Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
Preview Question 9: Why do we forget?

37. We cannot remember what we do not encode.
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not encode.

38. Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

39. Misinformation and Imagination Effects
Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event.
Depiction of the actual accident.

40. Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

41. Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

42. Constructed Memories
Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.
Don Shrubshell

43. Improving Memory Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.
Make material personally meaningful.
Use mnemonic devices:
associate with peg words — something already stored
make up a story
chunk — acronyms
Preview Question 12: How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques?

44. Improving Memory
Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood.
Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation.
Minimize interference:
Test your own knowledge.
Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know.
© LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis