2. Chapter: Carbon Chemistry
Table of Contents
Chapter: Carbon Chemistry
Section 1: Simple Organic Compounds
Section 2: Other Organic Compounds
Section 3: Biological Compounds

3. Simple Organic Compounds1
Organic Compounds
Carbon’s ability to bond easily and form compounds is the basis of life on Earth.
A carbon atom has four electrons in its outer energy level, so it can form four covalent bonds with as many as four other atoms.
One of carbon’s most frequent partners in forming covalent bonds is hydrogen.

4. Simple Organic Compounds1
Organic Compounds
Substances can be classified into two groups those derived from living things and those derived from nonliving things.
Most of the substances associated with living things contain carbon and hydrogen.
Scientists use the term organic compound for most compounds that contain carbon.

5. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane.
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Hydrocarbons
A compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms is called a hydrocarbon.
The simplest hydrocarbon is methane.
Methane consists of a single carbon atom covalently bonded to four hydrogen atoms.

6. Simple Organic Compounds1
Hydrocarbons
This figure shows a model of the methane molecule and its structural formula.
In a structural formula, the line between one atom and another atom represents a pair of electrons shared between the two atoms.

7. Here’s a way to visualize how larger hydrocarbons are built up.
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Hydrocarbons
Here’s a way to visualize how larger hydrocarbons are built up.

8. Saturated Hydrocarbons
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Saturated Hydrocarbons
When all the bonds in a hydrocarbon are single bonds, the molecule is called a saturated hydrocarbon.
No additional hydrogen atoms can be added to the molecule.

9. Saturated Hydrocarbons
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Propane, with three carbon atoms, is the third member of the series of saturated hydrocarbons.
Butane has four carbon atoms.

10. Saturated Hydrocarbons
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons are named with an –ane ending. Another name for these hydrocarbons is alkanes.

11. Saturated Hydrocarbons
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Carbon can form long chains that contain hundreds or even thousands of carbon atoms.
These extremely long chains make up many of the plastics that you use.

12. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons with double or triple bonds are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Ethene, the simplest unsaturated hydrocarbon, has two carbon atoms joined by a double bond.

13. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Unsaturated compounds with at least one double bond are named with an –ene ending.
These compounds are called alkenes.

14. These unsaturated compounds are called alkynes.
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Triple Bonds
Unsaturated hydrocarbons also can have triple bonds, as in the structure of ethyne (EH thine).
Ethyne, is a gas used for welding because it produces high heat as it burns.
These unsaturated compounds are called alkynes.

15. Simple Organic Compounds1
Hydrocarbon Isomers
Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different arrangements, or structures, are called isomers
(I suh murz).

16. Simple Organic Compounds1
Hydrocarbon Isomers
Two isomers, butane and isobutane, have different chemical and physical properties because of their different structures.

17. Some molecules contain rings.
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Hydrocarbons in Rings
Some molecules contain rings.
The carbon atoms of hexane bond together to form a closed ring containing six carbons.

18. Ring structures can contain one or more double bonds.
Simple Organic Compounds 1
Hydrocarbons in Rings
The prefix cylco- in their names tells you that the molecules are cyclic or ring shaped.
Many natural substances such as sucrose, glucose, and fructose are ring structures.
Ring structures can contain one or more double bonds.

19. Section Check 1
Question 1
A compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon is known as what?
A. amino acid
B. hydrocarbon
B. isomer
C. organic compound

20. Section Check 1
Answer
The answer is B. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, a primary component of natural gas.

21. Question 2 Answer 1 What is a methyl group?
Section Check 1
Question 2
What is a methyl group?
Answer
A methyl group is a fragment of a methane molecule. In particular, it’s one that can bond with another methyl group to build up a larger hydrocarbon.

22. Section Check 1
Question 3
When all the bonds in a hydrocarbon are single bonds, the molecule is called a(n) _______.
A. isomer
B. organic compound
C. saturated hydrocarbon
D. unsaturated hydrocarbon

23. Section Check 1
Answer
The answer is C. You can remember this by thinking that the term saturated means “completely full”; no more hydrogen atoms can be added on to the molecule.

24. Substituted Hydrocarbons
Other Organic Compounds 2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Chemists change hydrocarbons to make compounds called substituted hydrocarbons.
To make a substituted hydrocarbon, one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by atoms such as halogens or by groups of atoms.

25. Substituted Hydrocarbons
Other Organic Compounds 2
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Such changes result in compounds with chemical properties different from the original hydrocarbon.
For example, when one or more chlorine atoms are added to methane in place of hydrogens, new compounds are formed.

26. Other Organic Compounds2
Alcohols
Groups of atoms also can be added to hydrocarbons to make different compounds.
The hydroxyl (hi DROK sul) group is made up of an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom joined by a covalent bond.

27. This figure shows the formation of the alcohol methanol.
Other Organic Compounds 2
Alcohols
An alcohol is formed when a hydroxyl group replaces a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon.
This figure shows the formation of the alcohol methanol.

28. The table lists three alcohols with their structures and uses.
Other Organic Compounds 2
Alcohols
Larger alcohol molecules are formed by adding more carbon atoms to the chain.
The table lists three alcohols with their structures and uses.

29. Other Organic Compounds2
Carboxylic Acids
A carboxylic (car BOK sul) group consists of a carbon atom that has a double bond with one oxygen atom and a single bond with a hydroxyl group.

30. The simplest carboxylic acid is formic acid.
Other Organic Compounds 2
Carboxylic Acids
Its formula is –COOH.
When a carboxyl group is substituted in a hydrocarbon, the substance formed is called a carboxylic acid.
The simplest carboxylic acid is formic acid.

31. Many carboxylic acids occur in foods.
Other Organic Compounds 2
Carboxylic Acids
Many carboxylic acids occur in foods.
Citric acid is found in citrus fruits such as oranges and grapefruit.
Lactic acid is present in sour milk.
Acetic acid dissolved in watervinegaroften is used in salad dressings.

32. Other Organic Compounds2
Amines
Amines are a group of substituted hydrocarbons formed when an amino group replaces a hydrogen atom.
An amino (uh ME noh) group is a nitrogen atom joined by a covalent bond to two hydrogen atoms.
It has the formula –NH2.

33. Amino acids are essential for human life.
Other Organic Compounds 2
Amino Acids
When both an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl acid group (-COOH) replace hydrogens on the same carbon atom in a molecule, a type of compound known as an amino acid is formed.
Amino acids are essential for human life.

34. The Building Blocks of Protein
Other Organic Compounds 2
The Building Blocks of Protein
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, which are an important class of biological molecules needed by living cells.
Twenty different amino acids bond in different combinations to form the variety of proteins that are needed in the human body.

35. The Building Blocks of Protein
Other Organic Compounds 2
The Building Blocks of Protein
Glycine is the simplest amino acid.
It is a methane molecule in which one hydrogen atom has been replaced by an amine group and another has been replaced by a carboxyl group.

36. Section Check 2
Question 1
You can take a hydrocarbon and create a compound with differing properties by replacing some of the hydrogen atoms with halogens. The result will be a _______.
Answer
The result is a substituted hydrocarbon. You could also add on groups of new atoms.

37. Section Check 2
Question 2
What does this symbol stand for?
–OH

38. Section Check 2
Answer
The symbol refers to a hydroxyl group.

39. Section Check 2
Question 3
What do you call a carbon atom that has a double bond with one oxygen atom and, at the same time, a single bond with a hydroxyl group?
A. amino group
B. carboxyl group
C. hydroxyl group
D. polymer

40. Section Check 2
Answer
The answer is B. Its formula is -COOH.

41. Biological Compounds 3
What’s a polymer?
A polymer is a molecule made up of many small organic molecules linked together with covalent bonds to form a long chain.
The small, organic molecules that link together to form polymers are called monomers.

42. Polymers produced by living organisms are called natural polymers.
Biological Compounds 3
What’s a polymer?
Polymers produced by living organisms are called natural polymers.
Polymers made in a laboratory are called synthetic polymers.

43. Biological Compounds 3
What’s a polymer?
The unsaturated hydrocarbon ethylene, C2H4, is the monomer of a common polymer used often in plastic bags.
The monomers are bonded together in a chemical reaction called polymerization (puh lih muh ruh ZAY shun).

44. The process goes on until a long molecule is formed.
Biological Compounds 3
What’s a polymer?
The carbon atoms that were joined by the double bond each have an electron to share with another carbon in another molecule of ethylene.
The process goes on until a long molecule is formed.

45. Your body cannot function properly without them.
Biological Compounds 3
Proteins are Polymers
A protein is a polymer that consists of a chain of individual amino acids linked together.
Your body cannot function properly without them.

46. Biological Compounds 3
Proteins are Polymers
The various functions in your body are performed by different proteins.
Your body makes many of these proteins by assembling 20 amino acids in different ways.
Eight of the amino acids that are needed to make proteins cannot be produced by your body.
These amino acids, which are called essential amino acids, must come from the food you eat.

47. Biological Compounds 3
Proteins are Polymers
The process by which your body converts amino acids to proteins is shown.

48. Biological Compounds 3
Carbohydrates
A carbohydrate is an organic compound that contains only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in a ratio of two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom.
The different types of carbohydrates are divided into groupssugars, starches, and cellulose.

49. Glucose and fructose are isomers.
Biological Compounds 3
Carbohydrates
Glucose and fructose are simple six-carbon carbohydrates found in many fresh and packaged foods.
Glucose and fructose are isomers.

50. Biological Compounds 3
Sugars
Simple sugars are carbohydrates containing five, six, or seven carbon atoms arranged in a ring.

51. Starches are sources of large amounts of energy.
Biological Compounds 3
Starches
Starches are polymers of glucose monomers in which hundreds or even thousands of glucose molecules are joined together.
Starches are sources of large amounts of energy.

52. Other Glucose Polymers
Biological Compounds 3
Other Glucose Polymers
Two other important polymers that are made up of glucose molecules are cellulose and glycogen.
Cellulose makes up the long, stiff fibers found in the walls of plant cells.
It is a polymer that consists of long chains of glucose units linked together.

53. Other Glucose Polymers
Biological Compounds 3
Other Glucose Polymers
Glycogen is a polymer that also contains chains of glucose units, but the chains are highly branched.
Animals make glycogen and store it mainly in their muscles and liver as a ready source of glucose.

54. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Biological Compounds 3
Lipids
A lipid is an organic compound that contains the same elements as carbohydrates
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
but in different proportions.

55. Biological Compounds 3
Lipids Store Energy
Lipids store energy in their bonds, just as carbohydrates do, but they are a more concentrated source of energy than carbohydrates.
If you eat more food than your body needs to supply you with the energy for usual activities, the excess energy fro the food is stored by producing lipids.

56. The chemical reaction that produces lipids is endothermic.
Biological Compounds 3
Lipids Store Energy
The chemical reaction that produces lipids is endothermic.
An endothermic reaction is one in which energy is absorbed.
This means that energy is stored in the chemical bonds of lipids.
When your body needs energy, the bonds are broken and energy is released.

57. Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids
Biological Compounds 3
Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids
Lipid molecules can be saturated or unsaturated.
When a lipid is saturated, the acid chains are straight because all the bonds are single bonds.

58. Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids
Biological Compounds 3
Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids
When a lipid is unsaturated the molecule bends wherever there is a double bond.
This prevents the chains from packing close together.

59. Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids
Biological Compounds 3
Saturated and Unsaturated Lipids
Doctors have observed that people who eat a diet high in saturated fats have an increased risk of developing cardiovascular problems such as heart disease.
The effect of saturated fat seems to be increased blood cholesterol, which may be involved in the formation of deposits on artery walls.

60. Your body needs cholesterol for building cell membranes.
Biological Compounds 3
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a complex lipid that is present in foods that come from animals, such as meat, butter, eggs, and cheese.
Even if you don’t eat foods containing cholesterol, your body makes its own supply.
Your body needs cholesterol for building cell membranes.

61. This condition is known as atherosclerosis.
Biological Compounds 3
Cholesterol
Deposits of cholesterol, called plaque, can build up on the inside walls of arteries.
This condition is known as atherosclerosis.

62. This, in turn, can lead to heart disease.
Biological Compounds 3
Cholesterol
When arteries become clogged, the flow of blood is restricted, which results in high blood pressure.
This, in turn, can lead to heart disease.

63. Section Check 3
Question 1
A molecule composed of many smaller molecules linked into a chain with covalent bonds is called a ________.
Answer
It is called a polymer; the prefix “poly,” means “many.”

64. Section Check 3
Question 2
A carbohydrate is an organic compound that contains carbon, hydrogen, and _______.

65. Section Check 3
Answer
The answer is oxygen. In the body, carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars that the body can use for energy.

66. Section Check 3
Question 3
Carbohydrates containing five, six or seven carbon atoms arranged in a ring shape are known as _______.
A. amino acids
B. proteins
C. sugars
D. unsaturated carbohydrates

67. Section Check 3
Answer
The answer is C. Whenever you eat a grape, you are eating carbon rings.

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