1. Psycholinguistics: The Psychology of Language
Approximately half the world’s population are native speakers of more than one language.
Even more people learn a second language after they’ve learned their primary language
Bilingualism is the norm in many parts of the world (especially Asia and Africa)
Second Language Acquisition

2. Learning a Second Language
Sequential Language Acquisition (L2 Acquisition)
Simultaneous Language Acquisition
Early research
Later research
Sequential Language Acquisition (L2 Acquisition):
The acquisition of a second language by someone who has already learned a first language
Simultaneous Language Acquisition
Learning two languages at more or less the same time, beginning in infancy
People learn second languages in school, when moving to a new country, or because they’re raised to speak two languages
Early research guessed that childhood bilingualism is detrimental
Bilingual children sometimes mix two languages in the same sentence. Example from a French-English speaking child:
His nose is perdu (mixing two vocabularies)
A house pink (using French word order)
That’s to me (using French idioms)
However, recent research suggests that childhood bilingualism can be advantageous

3. Simultaneous Bilingualism
Questions researchers try to answer:
How can a child learn two languages at the same time?
Does the child confuse the two languages?
Does bilingual development take longer than monolingual development?
Are bilingual children brighter?
Does simultaneous language acquisition impair cognitive development?
How much exposure to each language is necessary for a child to become bilingual?

4. Simultaneous Bilingualism
Two hypotheses
The Unitary Language System Hypothesis
*The Dual Language System Hypothesis*
Codeswitching
Stages of bilingual acquisition
What don’t we know?
Two hypotheses for how children learn two languages at the same time:
The Unitary Language System Hypothesis: Children learn one lexicon and one grammar, then learn to differentiate
The Dual Language System Hypothesis: Children learn two separate lexicons and grammars from the beginning. This is the most widely accepted.
Most research suggests that children learn two different lexicons and grammars
Children will use the correct grammar for each language
If a child doesn’t know the rule or the word in one language, the child will substitute the other language.
Bilingual children codeswitch: using two languages depending on the social context
Bilingual children acquire language in the same stages as monolingual children:
Babbling
Holophrasic stage
Telegraphic stage
Will omit function words in both languages
What don’t we know?
What kind of input is better?
Mom speaks on language and Dad speaks the other?
Can a child differentiate between the two languages if they’re combined?
How much input from each language does a child need?

5. Simultaneous Bilingualism
Bilingualism and cognition
Problem-solving
Metalinguistic awareness
Social appropriateness
Effects on education
What effect does bilingualism have on cognition?
Bilingual children tend to be better at certain kinds of problem solving
Better metalinguistic awareness: conscious awareness about language (rather than of a language)
Bilingual Hebrew / English-speaking child: “I speak Hebrew and English”
Monolingual English-speaking child: “What’s English?”
Bilingual children understand the arbitrary relationship between word and object earlier
They have the awareness to speak each language in the socially appropriate context
Success in school depends on how much the parents value both languages and education in general

6. Sequential Bilingualism
Sequential bilingualism is
Usually learned as a teenager or adult
Consciously attempted
Much more difficult to learn
Usually impossible to perfect the accent
Unlike acquiring a first language (for the most part)
Learned in stages (not the same as L1 learning)
How does native language influence second language learning?
Second language learners apply the grammatical rules of their language to the second language
Second language learners apply the phonemes from their native language to the second language (so they speak with an accent)
They have difficulty learning to produce phonemes that don’t exist in their native languages
Is there a critical period for L2 acquisition?
The earlier a person is exposed to a language, the more likely s/he will be have to speak like a native
Every year seems to make a difference
A nine-year-old who comes to the US from China will have an easier time learning English than a 10-year-old
However, teens and adults can learn to speak like natives

7. Sequential Bilingualism
Critical period vs. “sensitive periods”
“Overhearers”
Is there a critical period for L2 acquisition?
The earlier a person is exposed to a language, the more likely s/he will be have to speak like a native
Every year seems to make a difference
A nine-year-old who comes to the US from China will have an easier time learning English than a 10-year-old
However, teens and adults can learn to speak like natives
“Sensitive Periods” for acquiring language
A second language has to be introduced in childhood for all the phonemes to be perfect
Other elements of language (morphemes, grammar) have larger windows
“Overhearers”: people who overheard a language frequently in childhood but never learned to speak it
Have a more native-sounding accent than others
Don’t have an easier time learning the grammar