1. The Media and Politics
American Politics

2. Media ARE Plural Not a monolith Different Outlets Different Formats
Different Audiences
Affects content
Not a monolith
often said that “the media is ____” (liberal, biased, etc.)
there is a media sector (part of broader entertainment sector), a news industry, a media universe
treating media as one entity confuses political impact
our focus is the (explicit) political content in media (mostly the news)
Different Outlets
e.g. thousands of newspapers, hundreds of TV and radio stations, etc.
despite similarities, corporate mergers, and “nationalization of the news” there are differences
Different Formats
TV, radio, newspapers, internet all have different capacities for reporting news
Different Audiences
broadcasting v. narrowcasting
Affects content
where, how and to whom affect what’s considered “newsworthy”
January 15, 2019
American Politics

3. Formats I: Books and Magazines
Small (but influential) audience
Not a significant source of news
Indirect effect on coverage
magazines
Political magazines similar to books
Newsweeklies have larger “activist” audience
Books
written by academics, politicians, and journalists
Small (but influential) audience
few have a mass audience, except in election years
elite audience (policy-makers) very important
Not a significant source of news
more suited to sustained analysis
Indirect effect on coverage
read by (or at least authors interviewed by) reporters
magazines
large-circulation magazines (e.g. TV Guide, Readers' Digest, Parade) have little political content
Political magazines similar to books
"political" magazines typically have very small audiences (50,000 is large)
like books, more suited to analysis than to news
Newsweeklies have larger “activist” audience
newsweeklies have political content, but aimed at more activist audience (circulation for each around 2-5 million; 12% say they read them weekly)
January 15, 2019
American Politics

4. Formats II: Television and Newspapers
“mass media”: large audience, similar coverage
believable because visual
Mass impact limited by cable TV and “narrowcasting”
Newspapers
Few “national” newspapers
Collectively, large audience but shrinking for decades
Compare nature of coverage
TV: “if it bleeds, it leads”
Newspapers: “Big picture, local focus”
Television
“mass media”: large audience, similar coverage
Gallup Poll (Dec. 2002): 57% watch local news daily; 43% watch network news daily; 41% watch cable news daily
believable because visual
“eyewitness news”
Mass impact limited by cable TV and “narrowcasting”
Big 3 networks joined by additional networks and several all-news channels
2 major news sources added: Fox and CNN
other all-news channels: MSNBC, etc.
also, C-SPAN and niche news (CBN, Univision, Telemundo)
more content, more diversity, smaller audience for news
more alternatives to watching news (especially at 6pm and 10pm)
Newspapers
Few “national” newspapers
Collectively, large audience but shrinking for decades
Gallup Poll also said 47% read local newspaper daily, but only 11% read "national" newspapers daily
papers can provide much more information, in part because readers can choose what and how much to read
Compare nature of coverage
TV: “if it bleeds, it leads”
focus on dramatic, emotional, personal stories
reporters become news readers, anchors, news personalities
Newspapers: “Big picture, local focus”
cannot be as timely as TV, but can provide more local information
January 15, 2019
American Politics

5. Formats III: Radio & the Internet
Homogenization of programming
News content rare except during “drive time,” on “talk radio,” all-news and on NPR
Internet
Increasingly important as source of news, especially for younger people
Vast array of information; many more ways to avoid political content
Narrowcasting becomes “slivercasting”
Radio
Homogenization of programming
a few large conglomerates own most radio stations
music programming done from afar – same formats in every city
News content rare except during “drive time,” on “talk radio,” all-news and on NPR
“news” mostly headlines, weather, traffic
talk radio mostly a realm for conservative views
NPR generally perceived as more liberal
FM v. AM
satellite radio likely to have similar effect as cable TV – much more variety, but the same everywhere
Internet
Increasingly important as source of news, especially for younger people
many now get news daily (15%, according to 12/02 Gallup poll)
but, access to web still limited ("digital divide")
Vast array of information; many more ways to avoid political content
much information available - potential for direct exchange w/o "mediation“
information (aka rumors, speculation) spreads much more quickly
Narrowcasting becomes “slivercasting”
news tailored to interests (cf. “personal home pages” on all the major providers)
podcasts, video uploads, etc.
January 15, 2019
American Politics

6. Roles of the Media What criteria shape what’s considered “newsworthy”?
Media as (political) watchdogs
Media as a “fourth branch” of government
Media as businesses
What criteria shape what’s considered “newsworthy”?
cannot “reflect” reality; must select focus
sometimes obvious – something “new”, floods, hurricanes, wars
affects not just WHAT gets covered, but HOW and HOW Much
Media as (political) watchdogs
help protect the people from the government by exposing it
Media as a “fourth branch” of government
help to maintain and expand media power at the expense of (other branches of) government
Media as businesses
not really political at all; they cover what sells
January 15, 2019
American Politics

7. Media as Watchdogs
provide the information the people need to know to protect themselves from government
investigative journalism
focus on scandal and abuses of power
political effects
provide the information the people need to know to protect themselves from government
adversary of government to protect people
supposed to report on official misconduct and thus keep government and politicians honest and responsive
investigative journalism
e.g. Watergate, Iran-Contra, Whitewater, Abramoff
focus on scandal and abuses of power
politicians critical of this, and raise fears of media power out of hand
political effects
how effective as a watchdog?
which kinds of scandals are more likely to be reported?
does this promote general cynicism toward government?
January 15, 2019
American Politics

8. Media as Businesses Media outlets run as for-profit enterprises
What’s covered determined by what sells (Demand)
bad news, superficial gossip has large audience
substantial political news has “upscale audience”
look at the advertisements
Production costs (Supply)
Gathering and checking news more costly than acting as conveyor of information
Media mergers often result in cuts to news divisions
Media outlets run as for-profit enterprises
major media in U.S. not publicly-owned, publicly-financed, nor subject to public control
who pays for the product?
consumers directly, e.g. papers, cable (typically only part of cost)
consumers indirectly, through advertising costs passed on
not "citizens" - no tax on media to support it
not "government" - government subsidies to media relatively insignificant
What’s covered determined by what sells (Demand)
as privately-controlled for-profit entities, media outlets offer products for consumption - news, entertainment, infotainment
bad news, superficial gossip has large audience
substantial political news has “upscale audience”
consider New York Times: deep news coverage, much foreign and business news, ads for luxury goods
Production costs (Supply)
Gathering and checking news more costly than acting as conveyor of information
cheaper to regurgitate a press release than to interview sources
consider the use of VPRs, especially by local TV stations
Media mergers often result in cuts to news divisions
January 15, 2019
American Politics

9. Media Relationships with Politicians and Government
Why “relationships?”
Implied by roles
Crucial for assessing media power
Access
Leaks, background sources, trial balloons
Government management of access
Information
News releases, news conferences
Sound bites, image manipulation
Why “relationships?”
Implied by roles
political functions and roles of media make its power potentially great
Crucial for assessing media power
but, those functions are well-understood by politicians and can be manipulated by those with the necessary resources
Access
Leaks, background sources, trial balloons
leak: unattributed release of information; can also be unauthorized
trial balloon: use leak to gauge possible reaction and opposition; if it needs to be withdrawn, can be done without “losing face”
Government management of access
frequency of news conferences and releases
politicians have discretion, but can be criticized for avoiding the press (and, by extension, the people)
e.g. “Rose Garden” strategy
denial or management of access, especially in war
evolution from WWII (wide access along with censorship) to Vietnam (access and little censorship) to Gulf War I (managed access), to Iraq War (“embedding” reporters)
Information
News releases, news conferences
provide information in usable way to convey the message
news conferences more attractive to media because they ask questions and often go beyond planned topic (can also be ritualized)
Sound bites, image manipulation
sound bites: short, memorable phrases deliberately inserted into speech to shape interpretation
can be done with visuals, e.g. flags at campaign rallies, appearances at relevant places to reinforce message
also done by citizens’ groups – protests geared towards getting (substantial) media coverage
January 15, 2019
American Politics

10. Limitations on Print Media
First Amendment blocks most limits
No “prior restraint”
Thus, limits directed at keeping information out of newspaper’s hands in first place
Consider Pentagon Papers (1971)
New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
Limited scope of libel
Had to show “actual malice”
Extended to any “public figure” in Hustler Magazine v. Falwell (1987)
First Amendment blocks most limits
No “prior restraint”
can involve injunction against particular document or article, or general practice of pre-clearance by censor
Thus, limits directed at keeping information out of newspaper’s hands in first place
i.e. “classified” documents (and punishments for releasing that information)
punishments not directed against publishing information once acquired
cf. Valerie Plame case – criminal investigation targets reporters only as way of getting at sources
Consider Pentagon Papers (1971)
New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
Limited scope of libel
libel is printing false or defamatory information that causes harm
Had to show “actual malice”
i.e. knowing that the story was false, or reckless disregard for the facts
important in preserving media role in holding politicians accountable
important to be able to print allegations
in practice, because of legal costs imposed in defending against libel, reporters urged to get multiple sources
Extended to any “public figure” in Hustler Magazine v. Falwell (1987)
though Falwell not a public official, had political power
January 15, 2019
American Politics