1. State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India
Chapter 9
State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India
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2. The Mauryan and Gupta Empires 321 B.C.E.–550 C.E.
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3. The Fortunes of Empire
In 520 B.C.E., northwestern India conquered by Persian emperor Darius
Persian ruling pattern introduced
Persian empire in India destroyed, 327 B.C.E., by Alexander of Macedon
Troops mutinied, departed after two years
Left political power vacuum
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4. Kingdom of Magadha
Most significant remaining kingdom after Alexander’s departure
Central Ganges plain
Economic strength
Agriculture
Trade in Ganges valley, Bay of Bengal
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5. Chandragupta Maurya Took advantage of power vacuum left by Alexander
Overthrew Magadha rulers
Expanded kingdom to create first unified Indian empire
Mauryan dynasty
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6. Chandragupta’s Government
Advisor Kautalya
Recorded in Arthashastra, manual of political statecraft
Foreign policies, economics
Domestic policies
Network of spies
According to tradition, Chandragupta retired to become Jain monk; starved to death
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7. Ashoka Maurya Grandson of Chandragupta
Represented high point of Mauryan empire, r. 268–232 B.C.E.
Expanded empire to include all of Indian subcontinent except for southernmost region
Positive rule integrated Indian society
Much better known as a ruler than conqueror
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8. Decline of the Mauryan Empire
Economic crisis followed death of Ashoka
High costs of bureaucracy, military not supported by tax revenue
Frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries
Regions began to abandon Mauryan empire
Empire gone by about 185 B.C.E.
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9. Regional Kingdoms: Bactria
Northwestern India
Ruled by Greek-speaking descendants of Alexander’s campaigns
Intense cultural activity accompanied active trade
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10. Regional Kingdoms: Kush
Northern India/central Asia, ca. 1–300 C.E.
Kanishka (r. 127–153) most prominent emperor
Crucial role in maintaining Silk Roads trade network
Pacified large region, making safe travel possible
Contributed to spread of Buddhism
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11. The Gupta Dynasty Based in Magadha
Founded by Chandra Gupta (no relation to Chandragupta Maurya), ca. 320 C.E.
Slightly smaller than Mauryan empire
Highly decentralized leadership
Foundations for studies in natural sciences and mathematics
Hindi numerals (later “Arabic numerals”), concept of zero
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12. Gupta Decline Frequent invasions of White Huns, fifth century C.E.
Disintegration of Gupta dynasty along regional fault lines
Smaller local kingdoms dominated until Mughal empire founded in sixteenth century
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13. Towns and Manufacturing
Manufactured goods in big demand
Developed in dense network of small workshops
Intense trade
Capitalized on trade routes across India
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14. Long-Distance Trade Persian connection since Cyrus, Darius
Massive road-building projects under Persian rule
Alexander extended trade west to Macedon
Trade routes through Kush mountains, the Silk Roads
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15. Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin
Expansion of seasonal sea trade
Spring/winter winds from southwest, fall/winter winds from northwest
Trade from Asia to Persian Gulf and Red Sea, Mediterranean
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16. Gender Relations Patriarchy entrenched
Child marriage common (eight-year-old girls married to men in twenties)
Women encouraged to remain in private sphere
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17. Social Order Caste system from Aryan times Brahmins (priests)
Kshatriyas (warriors, aristocrats)
Vaishyas (peasants, merchants)
Shudras (serfs)
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18. Castes and Guilds
Increasing economic diversification challenged simplistic caste system
Jati formed: guilds that acted as subcastes
Enforced social order
Outcastes—individuals who did not abide by group rules—forced into low-status employment
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19. Wealth and the Social Order
Upward social mobility possible for vaishyas, shudras
Prosperity created challenges for varna system
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20. Religions of Salvation in Classical India
Social change generated resentment of caste privilege
Example: brahmins free from taxation
Sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E., new religions and philosophies challenged status quo
Charvakas: atheists
Jains, Buddhists, Hindus
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21. Jainism Vardhamana Mahavira, ca. 540–468 B.C.E.
Abandoned privileged family to lead ascetic life
Promoted seventh-century movement based on Upanishads
Emphasis on selfless living, concern for all beings
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22. Jainist Ethics and Appeal
Ahimsa: principle of extreme nonviolence
Jainists swept earth, strained water, used slow movements to avoid killing insects
Rejected caste, jati distinctions; obvious appeal to underprivileged groups
Asceticism too extreme for mass movement
Ahimsa continues to inspire modern movements (Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr.)
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23. Early Buddhism Siddhartha Gautama, ca. 563–483 B.C.E.
Encountered age, sickness, death, then monastic life
Abandoned comfortable life to become monk
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24. Gautama’s Search for Enlightenment
Intense meditation, extreme asceticism
Forty-nine days of meditation under bo tree to finally achieve enlightenment
Attained title of Buddha: “the enlightened one”
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25. The Buddha and His Followers
Began teaching new doctrine ca. 528 B.C.E.
Followers owned only robes, food bowls
Life of wandering, begging, meditation
Establishment of monastic communities
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26. Buddhist Doctrine: The Dharma
The Four Noble Truths
All life involves suffering
Desire is cause of suffering
Elimination of desire brings end to suffering
This may be done through Noble Eightfold Path
Right belief, resolve, speech, behavior, occupation, effort, contemplation, meditation
Nirvana: state of perfect spiritual independence
Dharma: basic doctrine shared by Buddhists
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27. Appeal of Buddhism Less dependence on brahmins for ritual activities
No recognition of caste, jati status
Philosophy of moderate consumption
Public service through lay teaching
Use of vernacular, not Sanskrit
Monasteries became important institutions in Indian society
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28. Ashoka’s Support of Buddhism
Personal conversion to Buddhism
Saddened after violent war with Kalinga
Banned animal sacrifices, mandated vegetarianism in court
Material support for Buddhist institutions, missionary activities
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29. Changes in Buddhist Thought
Third century B.C.E. to first century C.E.
Buddha considered divine
Institution of bodhisattvas (similar to Christian saints)
Charitable donations to monasteries regarded as pious activity
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30. Spread of Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana (“greater vehicle”), newer development
India, China, Japan, Korea, central Asia
Hinayana (“lesser vehicle,” also Theravada), earlier version
Ceylon, Burma, Thailand
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31. Nalanda Buddhist monastery
Quasi-university: Buddhism, Hindu texts, philosophy, astronomy, medicine
Peak at end of Gupta dynasty
Helped spread Indian thought
Mathematical number zero
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32. The Emergence of Popular Hinduism
Composition of epics from older oral traditions
Mahabharata
Ramayana
Emphasis on god Vishnu and his incarnations
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33. The Bhagavad Gita “Song of the lord” Centuries of revisions
Final form ca. 400 C.E.
Dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna during civil war
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34. Hindu Ethics Obedience to religious and moral laws (dharma)
Pursuit of economic well-being and honest prosperity (artha)
Enjoyment of social, physical, and sexual pleasure (kama)
Salvation of the soul (moksha)
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35. Popularity of Hinduism
Gradually replaced Buddhism in India
Gupta dynastic leaders extended considerable support
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