1. Chapter 16: Qualitative research
Introduction
16.1 Some philosophy - again
16.2 Quality versus quantity
16.3 Types of qualitative research
16.4 Qualitative methods
Appreciative inquiry
Action research
Ethnography and participant observation
Focus group
Grounded theory
Hermeneutics
Semiotics

2. Introduction
What makes scientific knowledge better than other types of knowledge?
Reliability

3. 16.1 Some philosophy
1900s: Scientific knowledge is verifiable (view of positivism)
If experiment is repeated, you should get the same results
Assumes that knowledge is objective, i.e. the scientist does not influence the results at all.
Not always possible to repeat experiment. Limitations with regard to size, distance, etc.
Popper: Scientific knowledge is falsiable
A theory holds until it can be disproved.
Sometimes hard to distinguish between verifiablity and falsibiality
Statistical experiments are simultaneously verifiable and falsiable; proposal of a new model is only falsiable.

4. 16.2 Quality versus quantity
With positivism dominant, it was important to remove all personal bias
Therefore, only quantitative research was accepted.
But quantitative research
cannot answer all questions
Is not always as objective as thought
E.g. why is one interface more liked by users than another?
Quantitative research can answer may questions, but
Will not be able to determine reasons why a specific interface has been disliked in the past.
Reasons might be emotional rather than rational and users might themselves even not know why they like a specific interface more than another.
Quantitative an qualitative research complement each other.

5. 16.3 Types of qualitative research
Qualitative data cannot be measured in the same manner as quantitative data.
How do you ensure objectivity?
Minimise impact of researcher as best you can (positivist qualitative research)
Deny that it is possible to be truly objective (interpretative research)
See researcher as an agent with agenda who does research with the explicit intention of changing something (critical research)

6. 16.4 Some qualitative methods
Appreciative inquiry
Build on existing good practices and improve even further
Discover what exists, dreams of what could be, design vision and strategy for the future, implement plans
Action research
Iterative research
Determine current situation of interest and make intervention.
Evaluate resulting situation, make another intervention, etc.
Proceed until problem is solved
Action research allows the researcher the opportunity of learning what the problem entails during earlier cycles
Ethnography and participant observation
Study of culture of participant by means of observations
“Culture” very wide concept
Participants observed in natural setting (i.e. not laboratory)
Researcher becomes one of the community being studied

7. 16.4 Some qualitative methods (contnd.)
Focus group
Similar to brainstorming
Dynamics of interaction of a small group are likely to simulate creativity
Gather a small number of users and tap their ideas about a proposed system
Researcher plays role of facilitator only
Grounded theory
Most research starts with a theory and then proceed by proving/disproving the theory.
Grounded theory works different:
Starts with field of research and allows the theory to emerge from what is observed.
E.g. after several interviews with potential users, a pattern might become clear.
Formulate tentative theory, proceed with interviewing, adapt theory etc.
Iterative until saturation: new sampling/interviews do not contribute to theory.

8. 16.4 Some qualitative methods (contnd.)
Hermeneutics
Interprets a text from viewpoint of the author.
Extract intended meaning and not impose your own meaning
Many documents were created in a different time and culture
Different symbols with different meaning were used
Is IT old enough? Batch processing, punched card input, line printers were items of a foregone era.
Semiotics
Study of signs
A sign is a signifier that stands for something.
Relationship between signifier and signified is not always clear and semiotics attempts to uncover such hidden meaning.
Not just icons and elements of user interfaces, but also underlying models and metaphors.

9. Workshop
Design a qualitative usability study to determine whether Google or Yahoo presents the best user interface for Internet searches.
Remember: You may not express your own opinion on the matter and design the experiment such that any one of the two could win.