1. PSYC 2314 Lifespan Development
Chapter 16
Adolescence:
Psychosocial Development

2. The Self and Identity
Identity: a unique and consistent self-definition
Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion
Psychosocial development during adolescence is the quest for self-understanding for answers to the questions “Who am I?”
The first step in the identity process is to establish the integrity of personality—that is, to align emotions, thinking, and behavior to be consistent no matter what the place, time, circumstances, or social relationship.
Younger children describe themselves primarily in terms of their skills in school, with friends, and perhaps on the athletic field. But adolescents distinguish their scholastic competence from other aspects of who they are; in addition, they think of their job skills, romantic appeal, moral conduct, and peer acceptance. They also begin to ponder career options, political identification, religious commitment, and sexual ethics, questioning how these values fit together with expectations for the future and the beliefs acquired in the past.

3. Identity Statuses Identity Achievement Foreclosure Negative Identity
Identity Diffusion
Identity Moratorium
For Erikson, the ultimate goal, identity achievement, occurs when adolescents establish their own goals and values by abandoning some of those set by parents and culture while accepting others.
Some adolescents achieve identity prematurely, a process called foreclosure. They close out the process before it is complete. An adolescent adopts parents’ or society’s roles and values wholesale, rather than exploring alternatives and forging a personal identity.
Other adolescents, unable to find alternative roles that are truly their own, simply rebel and become the opposite of what is expected of them, adopting a negative identity.
Others experience identity diffusion, with few commitments to goals or values, whether those of parents, peers, or the larger society.
Many adolescents declare an identity moratorium, often by using an institutionalized time-out such as college or voluntary military service as a means of postponing final decisions about career or marriage.
Adolescents who have achieved identity or foreclosed their search have a strong sense of ethnic background. However, those who have foreclosed are relatively high in prejudice, perhaps because they have simply seized on their own ethnicity without ever considering the merits of other background.
Extensive research, much of it longitudinal, confirms that many adolescents go through a period of foreclosure or diffusion, and then a moratorium, before they finally achieve a mature identity.

4. Society and Identity
For immigrants and minority adolescents, identity formation is particularly complex because they must find the right balance between their ethnic background and the values of the society at large. Consequently, they may embrace a negative identity, or, as is more often the case, foreclose on identity prematurely.

5. Family and Friends Generation Gap Generational Stake
Conflict/bickering
Parental monitoring
Generation gap is not as wide as it is popular assumed to be. Indeed, studies have found substantial agreement between parents and adolescents on values and aspirations. However, there is a generational stake, which refers to the tendency of each generation in the parent-adolescent relationship to see the family in a certain way.
Parents have a stake in believing that all is well and that their children are basically loyal to the family despite the contrary. Adolescents have a stake in believing that parents are limited, old-fashioned, and out of touch. For example, curfew. Parents to love and protect; adolescents see it as attempt to control and dominate.
Parent-adolescent spats are more common in early adolescence, particularly with mothers and their early-maturing daughters more than fathers. Bickering is the repeated, petty arguments about daily habits.
Among Chinese, Korean, and Mexican American teens, conflict tends to arise in late adolescence, in part because of the emphasis on dependency in children and family closeness in these cultures.
In short, parent-teen relationships are typically supportive during adolescence. If there is a generation gap, it centers on daily details, such as musical tastes and sleeping habits, rather than on moral or political values.

6. Family and Friends Other aspects of family functioning Communication
Support
Connectiveness
Control
Can they talk openly with one another?
Do they rely on one another?
How close are they?
Do parents encourage or limit autonomy?

7. Family and Friends
Four special functions of peer relationships and close friendships
Pubertal self-help
Social support
Identity formation
Values clarification
Peers provide both info and the companionship of those who are going through the same physical changes, able to listen to concerns and provide specific advice as few adults can.
Peer group aids the search for self-understanding and identity.
Values clarification: friends are a sounding board for exploring and defining values and aspirations.

8. Peer Group for Immigrants
Conflict between peers and family is likely to arise in ethnic groups that revere closeness to family, respect for elders, and self-sacrifice for the sake of kin. This ideal clashes with the peer-group emphasis on adolescent freedom and self-determination.

9. Relationship Heterosexual Attraction Peer group Timing of puberty
Culture
Parents
Availability of someone in a setting that allows sexual interaction
Peer group: friends of the same sex become a launching pad for forays into acquaintanceship with other sex.
Timing of puberty: adolescents who mature early generally are the fit to reach out to the other sex.

10. Four-Step Progression
Groups of same-sex friends
Loose, public interactions between a girl’s group and a boy’s group
A smaller heterosexual group formed from the more advanced members of the larger group
Final pairing off of heterosexual couples.

11. Gay or Lesbian Relationship
Added complications usu. slow down romantic attachments.
Not yet recognized sexual orientation
Difficulty in finding both romantic partners and loyal friends in whom to confide
Denial of feelings
One difference between the sexes here is that lesbian adolescents find easier to establish strong friendships with same-sex heterosexual peers than homosexual teen boys do. The probable reason is that female friendships generally tend to be close and intimate, whereas males are often wary of close friendships with other males, especially those who sexual orientation is in doubt,. In many cases, a homosexual boy’s best friend is a girl, who is more at ease with his sexuality than a same sex peer might be.

12. Adolescent Suicide Suicidal ideation: thinking about suicide.
Parasuicide: deliberate acts of self-destruction that do not cause death
Despite the popular misconception, adolescents under age 20 are less likely to kill themselves than adults are.
Thinking about suicide is quite common among high school students.

13. Factors Leading to Suicide or Parasuicide
Availability of lethal methods
Parental monitoring
Use of alcohol and other drugs
Gender
Attitudes about suicide held by the adolescent’s culture
Adolescents have more guns, less adult supervision, and more alcohol and drugs because many parents are divorced, single, or working outside the home.
Whereas males are more likely than females to kill themselves, the rate of parasuicide is notably higher for females than for males.
Cultural romanticism regarding suicide may lead to cluster suicides.
At every age, chronic depression, death of a close friend, drug abuse, loneliness, social rejection, and homosexuality correlate with suicide ideation and completion.

14. Breaking the Law
The incidence of arrests is higher during the second decade than in any other period of life.
The prevalence of adolescent crime is even greater than official records report.
Boys are 3x as likely to be arrested as girls and African Americans are nearly 3x as likely to be arrested as European Americans, who are 3x as likely to be arrested as Asian Americans.
International arrest rates rise rapidly at 12, peak at 16 and then decline slowly with every passing year.
Victims of adolescent crime tend to be teenagers.

15. Breaking the Law
Adolescent-limited offenders: criminal activity stops by age 21
Life-course persistent offenders: career criminals
Adolescents who later become career criminals are among the first of their cohort to have sex, drink alcohol, and smoke cigarettes; they are among the least involved in school activities and most involved in “hanging out” with older, law-breaking youths. They tend to be antisocial in preschool and elementary school, and they often show signs of brain damage at an early age. Among these signs are language difficulties, hyperactivity, and poor emotional control.

16. Intervention Measures
Cohesive neighborhood
Effective school
Supportive peer group
Stable family
A best friend who discourages crime

17. Themes of Adolescent Development
Most adolescents and families survive the adolescent transition fairly well.
While all adolescents have some difficulties, no developmental trajectory is set in stone.