1. Gender, Crime and Justice

2. Revision – key things from last session
typically masculine practices lead to criminal acts
Scraton 'Hillsborough: The Truth'
Walklate suggests that "Foregrounding men as the 'problem' in relation to the question of crime became an increasingly important part of the criminological equation during the 1990s" (2001: 53)
Sutherland's learned behaviour theory useful to explore whether boys are socialized into becoming "tough, aggressive, active, risk seekers“
Not just lower class activity
Talcott's functionalist theory useful to relate social learning to sex-role theory and the 'breadwinning' role expected of men
Schools and universities are important places for 'doing' masculinity (example school shootings)

3. Hegemonic Masculinity
In 2006, 80% of known offenders were men.
34% of men have a conviction by the age of 40.
Men made up 92% of the total prison population in 2006.
(Ministry of Justice, Section 95, 2006)

4. Focusing on men Naffine (1997) ‘Feminism & Criminology’
Tony Jefferson, in the Oxford Handbook of Criminology
Crime is one of the cultures in which young men acquire the mantle of manhood. (Bea Campbell, 1993:211)
1st special issue on masculinity of the British Journal of Criminology (1996)

5. History
Prior to the nineteenth century only wealthy, property owning men could vote
Black men (and women) were held as slaves in the USA until 1863
Male homosexual acts between adults were criminalised until 1967 
BUT
Maleness is invisible – we only tend to notice gender if we talk about women
Crime is a way of ‘doing masculinity’ – a way for some men to ‘prove’ they are men
Not all men are the same – there are different types of masculinity

6. Identity 1950s - Talcott Parsons
Men make masculinity according to the social situation in which they find themselves. (Messerschmidt,1993: 82)
Bob Connell, 1995
Hegemonic masculinity - ‘the idealized form of masculinity’ (Messerschmidt, 1993: 82)
Complicit masculinity – here men benefit from hegemonic masculinity without practicing the full hegemonic package.
Marginalised masculinity – this may be class and/or race specific and deemed inferior.
Hazel Croall, Crime and Society in Britain

7. The role of hegemonic masculinity within the CJS
Sandra Walklate, Gender & Crime – An Introduction
Hegemonic masculinity comprises a set of cultural expectations emphasising toughness and power
Some men use intellectual resources to gain power, others use physical force
White, middle class men dominate the higher ranks of the CJS

8. Men in Prison Ryan and Sim (in Ruggiero, Ryan and Sim, 1995: 119):
Once inside, prisoners are … placed in regimes which will emphisize authority rather than rehabilitation, security rather than justice and privileges rather than rights.
‘Violence Research Programme’ - Kimmett Edgar and Carol Martin
209 prisoners interviewed incidents fights; 34 assaults, 47 situations that did not result in injury.
Prison regimes...
generate competition for scarce resources;
require inmates to interact with others whose behaviour they cannot predict;
deprive people of privacy.

9. Working with violence
Geese Theatre company
Alternatives to Violence Project

10. Changes in the prison population in recent years has resulted in more violent men in prison than ever before
Increased security leads to more disorder
Increased assaults and increased suicides
Some programmes help but sometimes prison guards re-enforce the culture of masculinity
The Governor of Brinsford Young Offenders' Institution:
“When you get 500 young men in a school or an army barracks or a prison you get bullying. It's the human condition.”