1. Interactive lecture IV Jolanta Babiak Winter semester 2018/2019
MEMORY and learning
Interactive lecture IV
Jolanta Babiak
Winter semester 2018/2019

2. DEFINITION OF MEMORY
processes that enable an individual to encode, store and retrieve information type of information processing Ability to store and retrieve information

3. THREE MEMORY PROCESSES
Encoding: the first step in data processing – information about the environment reaches us in the form of stimulus (physical, chemical). When we encode we change this data into psychological form - a representation of visual, semantic, audio coding
Storage: storing information over time
Retrieval: enables to gain access to information stored earlier; some information gets retrieved in a split of a second, “automatically”; however complex information, large amount of data, information which is not well comprehended may not be so swiftly retrieved

4. THREE TYPES OF MEMORY Episodic memory Semantic memory
Stores the specific events that are personally experienced – e.g. what you’ve had for breakfast today, whom you first met on the way to school, coffee you had with your friends – time and situation (context) forms the cues to retrieve this information
Depending on how this information was encoded you may or may not be able to retrieve it from your memory
In regards to episodic memory we rather say “I recall that….”
Semantic memory
relates to the meaning, understanding of the process, event, concept or information, e.g. the capital of France, names of Russian Tzars, author of Hamlet
Information from semantic memory is “I know that….”
Procedural memory
Knowledge how things get done – process, e.g. riding a bike, swimming, typing, holding a pen
It is very stable and functions for years even if not used

5. WOHEAOR

6. THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
Sensory memory, e.g. iconic – the first stadium information goes through; memory trace of visual stimulus gets wiped out after a second
Short-term memory – not a particular place information goes to, but a mechanism of focusing cognitive resources in a set of mental representations – e.g. trying to remember phone number; information lasts about one minute in this memory
Primacy effect – better memory for items at the start of a list; we are used to pay special attention to elements that are located at the start of the information piece
Recency effect - improved memory for items at the end of the list – it is the end of the piece of information
Interference – makes information disappear from our STM
Shallow and deep information processing – type of attention we pay to information at the time of encoding
Long-term memory – our storehouse – our total knowledge of the world and of the self
Some scientists propose that this LTM stores everything we experienced, but we might not be able to access this information because we either have no cues to retrieve it or we repressed it to subconscious

7. How is our long term memory organized
Our brain tries to function in the most economical mode
We categorize stimuli
We store information in hierarchy
Adequate organization of information helps in retrieving process
“Tip of a tong” effect – most probably the process of encoding and storing was disturbed
Context-based memory – retrieving vivid memories when put in the same context while experiencing specific events
State based memory – physiological or psychological states – viscous circle effect

8. Animal
Bird
Canary
Eagle
Fish
Tuna

9. Remembering and forgetting
We don’t we remember – we reconstruct information: putting together information based on more general knowledge stored
That’s why our memories might be distorted and not resemble the real experience or event that actually happened
Eyewitness memory – vulnerable to distortions by post-event information: acquiring new information that can interact with the original memories

10. Learning and behavior Organisms learn from their experiences
Behavioral change is a consequence of learning
Learning cannot be observed directly, but improvement in performance is an outcome of learning
Anything that is learned is demonstrated in rather consistent change in behavior
Experience is necessary for learning to occur
Learning is studied through experimental studies, over time

11. Behaviorist school of thought
Behaviorism (John Watson) – scientist cannot rely on data drawn from introspection, because it is too subjective. Observable behavior is the answer
Radical behaviorism (B.F. Skinner) – behavior is not caused by mental events, such as thinking, memorizing, recalling – these are behaviors that are caused by environmental stimuli
Behavior analysis – discovering environmental determinants of learning and behavior

12. Habituation and sensitization
In simplest learning, behavior changes when new stimulus is presented repeatedly
When an organism is habituated to a stimulus his reaction decreases as the stimulus is repeatedly presented; habituation is very functional
When an organism is sensitized the reaction increases

13. Classical conditioning
The organism learns a new association between a stimulus that is initially neutral – stimulus 1 and
A stimulus of some significance to the organism – stimulus 2
Behavior (conditioned response) gets induced by a stimulus (conditioned stimulus) that has become important to the subject because it’s become associated with biologically significant stimulus (unconditioned stimulus)
Ivan Pavlov had observed that learning may result from two stimuli associated with each other

14. Classical conditioning, cont.
Reflex responses e.g. salivation, pupil contraction, eye blinking
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – one that elicits unconditioned behaviors
Unconditioned response (UCR) – behavior elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – neutral stimulus
Conditioned response (CR) – a response resulting from pairing UCS and CS

18. Conclusions about the basic process of classical conditioning
acquisition – conditioned response (CR) is first produced, increases in frequency over repeated trials; Conditioned stimulus (CS) and Unconditioned stimulus have to co- occur several times in order for conditioned stimulus (CS) causes conditioned response (CR) to happen
In order for the organism to acquire the conditioned response (CR) the pairings of conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) must be systematic
The organism perceives the CS and UCS as related if they are presented closely enough in time

19. Conclusions about the basic process of classical conditioning
Extinction – when the conditioned stimulus (CS) no longer precedes unconditioned stimulus (UCS) conditioned response becomes weaker over time and reaches a point when it stops occurring
It appears that conditioned responses (CR) are not a permanent aspect of an organism’s behavior
Spontaneous recovery - CR will appear in a weak form again if presented with conditioned stimulus
Savings – an organism require less time to relearn the reaction if pairs of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus are presented again, that means extinction has only weakened performance and did not wipe it completely

20. Conclusions about the basic process of classical conditioning
Stimulus generalization – the more similar the new stimulus to the original one (CS) the stronger the response will be (child and dog example)
Stimulus discrimination – process by which organisms learn to react to stimuli which are similar to the original stimuli only in some dimensions

21. Robert Rescorla further experiments
Tone (CS), shock (UCS): the tone reliably predicted the presence of a shock – additional requirement for classical conditioning to occur
Also it CS must be informative in the environment
A stimulus is noticed when it stands out: it is intense and contrasts with other stimuli

22. Real life situations of classical conditioning
Classically conditioned responses are built on automatic emotional reactions
Fear conditioning – Little Albert experiment by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner; ethical issues – learned fear reaction is difficult to extinguish
Traumatic events can condition people to cognitive, emotional and behavioral reactions – even for a lifetime; car accidents, bombings, earthquakes
Responses of happiness and joy are also instances of classical conditioning; advertisement

23. Summary of classical conditioning
In classical conditioning learning takes place when stimuli acquire new meaning as they signal more important events
Two stimuli are presented together, with no requirement for the learner to do anything

24. Assigned reading
Gerrig, R. J. (2012). Psychology and Life, New Jersey, Pearson Education, Inc. – chapter 5
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