1. Learning positive and relatively permanent change in behavior”
“It is continuous and a result of gaining new experiences

2. Categories of behavioral learning
1. Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s experiment):
Before classical conditioning
- CS (Light) NO response  
- US (Food) UR (salivation)
during classical conditioning :
- CS (Light)
- US (Food)
After classical conditioning :
CS (Light) CR (Salivation)
UR (Salivation)

3. 2. Operant conditioning: (Skinner’s experiment)
Researcher prepared a box, with a bar inside it, under the bar, there is food.
Pressing the bar, give food
A hungry rat inside the box: Occasionally, the rat pressed the bar and some food falls into the dish.
- The rat starts to press the bar again, and more food was falling into the dish.

4. In this experiment there is No external stimulus.
-The food reinforces bar pressing
-If no food present pressing the bar decrease.
* In classical conditioning: animal is passive, waits until the conditioned stimulus is presented and followed by the unconditioned stimulus.
 * In operant conditioning: the animal is active (no conditioned stimulus)

5. Reinforcement: or (reward): "It is any event, whose occurrence increases the probability that the behavior (response) will be repeated.  -Positive reinforcement: the frequency of the response increases because the response causes increase arrival of satisfying stimulus (food).  -Negative reinforcement: the frequency of the response increases in removal of unpleasant stimulus (electric shock).

6. Punishment:
"It is any event, whose occurrence decreases the probability that the behavior (response) will be repeated.
* E.g. when the rat press the bar an electric shock is turn on.

7. Shaping Behavior
* Behavior can be shaped by systematic reinforcement to successive approximations of the desired response.
-E.g. if parents want to teach their preschool child to write his name. at first they reward him when he hold the pencil and paper properly, and so rewarded if writes the letters accurately, until he writes his name.
-Mentally retarded children systematically rewarded for closer and closer attempts to tie the shoes or using cup and spoon for feeding.

8. Applications of operant conditioning
1- In psychotherapy: reinforcement of desired behavior as: commitment to medication. 2- In academic fields: rewards after achievements and punishment after failures in education. 3- Many employee motivational programs use reinforcement principles.

9. Cognition and Learning
Learning without reinforcement:
- Cognitive psychologists maintain that much of human learning occurs without reinforcement .

10. Two types of cognitive learning:
1. latent learning:- nursing field
When an organism learns a new behavior but doesn’t demonstrate this knowledge until an incentive to do so, the learning is called latent learning.
Ex: You learn the way to an unfamiliar part of town if someone tells you how to get there.

11. 2. Observational learning:
Organisms gain a great deal of knowledge through observing the behavior of others, observations occur by looking, touching, listening –etc. This model is called observational learning. E.g. nursing skills

12. Psychologists developed forms of psychotherapy based on observational learning.
Ex. In phobia, clients can observe others performs phobic activities safely, they can develop confidence and imitate them

13. Social cognitive theory
Theory concentrates on the question (how and why) personality styles are maintained over time.
1. Schemas:
- Organized sets of knowledge about particular domains of life. مجموعات منظمة من المعرفة حول مجالات محددة من الحياة. (coloring the way we perceive events).
Ex: person with “shyness schema” will view the slightest mistake in social situation as disaster.

14. 2. Tasks:
-Tasks are based on the goals we set for ourselves and the ideals for which we strive.
Ex: student may focus on the task of making friends to such an extent that he neglects alternatives life tasks such as making good grades.

15. 3. Strategies:
Depend on schemas and tasks.
- Combination of thoughts and actions of anticipation planning, self-monitoring and effort.

16. Critique of social cognitive theory
1- It neglects emotions as love, hate & sorrow 2. Focus on responses to specific social situations. 3. Sometimes behavior determines schemas.

17. Stages of Cognitive Development “Piaget’s four stages”
1. Sensorimotor- (birth to 2 years): - The child develops a sense of self as separate from the environment and the concept intentionally e.g. shaking a rattle. 2. Preoperational- (2 to 6 years): - develops the ability to express self with language - represents objects by images and wards - begins to classify objects by single dimension

18. 3. Concrete operations- (6 to 12 years): - begins to apply logic to thinking.
- understands specialty and reversibility
- begins to classify objects by several dimensions.

19. 4. Formal operations- (12 to ≥15 years:
- Develops logical thinking and reasoning, and achieves cognitive maturity
Concerned with future and ideological problems.
*Piaget’s theory suggests that individuals reach cognitive maturity by middle to late adolescence.

20. Critique of Paget's theory:
1. +ve: Piaget’s theory is useful when working with children: the nurse is aware of his or her level of cognitive development.
2. –ve: Cognitive development is more individualized than this theory suggests.