2. Sabine Wollscheid, Senior Researcher, Dr. phil.
Hanne Næss Hjetland, Senior Researcher, PhD
, Ministry of Education and Research, Oslo
Gender differences in academic achievement - causal factors and interventions
Findings from a rapid review

3. Disposition
Introduction
Method and data
Findings - Studies addressing causal factors
Findings - Studies addressing effects of interventions
Conclusion

4. Boys overrepresented in several statistics in education:
Introduction
Boys overrepresented in several statistics in education:
Among pupils with reading and language difficulties
Among pupils at risk of dropping out of school
Among pupils receiving special needs education
Evidence for stable gender differences in academic achievement, in favor of girls
Different combinations of race, gender and family background can make a difference
E.g., international studies have shown that gender differences are less evident among pupils with high SES.

5. Broad topic, adressing several disciplines
Introduction
Review Question: Causal factors and interventions addressing gender differences in academic achievement
Broad topic, adressing several disciplines
Social sciences,
Natural sciences
Education and pedagogics
Gender as social construction vs. sex as understood in biology
Disciplinary breath implies possibilities and limitations for this review

6. Rapid review = a light version» of a systematic review
Method: Rapid review
Rapid review = a light version» of a systematic review
«quick (and cheap), but not dirty»!
Systematic process
Specify review question and selection criteria
Systematic literature search
Selection of relevant studies and quality assessment
Summary and synthesis of results
to reduce bias!

7. 93 studies on causal factors 30 intervention studies
Data material
123 references included:
119 primary studies
4 systematic reviews or meta-analysis
93 studies on causal factors
30 intervention studies

8. Findings – Causal factors of gender differences in academic achievement

9. Studies of causal factors
Individual factors
3 review studies, i.e., systematic reviews/ meta-analyses
54 primary studies (33 with robust design)
School-related factors
1 meta-analysis
21 primary studies (13 with robust design)
Structural factors
17 primary studies (13 with robust design)
Most studies related to individual factors, i.e., cognitive and non-cognitive factors!

10. Individual factors: Non-cognitive skills
16 studies with robust design
Boys appear to have a stronger self-efficacy in school-subjects, not necessarily reflecting better grades.
Motivational factors might be related to school outcomes differently for boys and girls.
Gender differences in self-regulation
But: this does not mean that there is a causal relationship between non-cognitive skills and school outcomes
Limitations in assessing psychological outcomes (self-reports)

11. Individual factors: interaction of cognitive and non-cognitive factors
4 studies with robust design
Studies on interactions of cognitive and non-cognitive skills indicate that intelligence is a stronger predictor of school achievement for boys
Girls appear to “get more out” of intelligence.

12. School related factors
13 studies with robust design
Grading, assessment practice, gender composition
6 studies with robust design
Evidence that girls achievement is assessed more positively, in particularly in terms of social and psychological factors
A high percent share of girls might reduce absence among boys and boys’ achievement (in high achieving contexts)

13. School related factors
Teacher gender
6 studies with robust design
Teacher gender has nearly no significance to explain gender differences in academic achievement
Teachers meet boys with lower expectations and assess their behavior more negatively compared to that of girls.

14. Family background, socialization, gender stereotypes, masculinity
Structural factors
Family background, socialization, gender stereotypes, masculinity
12 studies with robust design
Socio-economic status (SES) appear to have a larger impact on boys’ achievement
Larger differences in favor of girls among pupils with low SES
Higher significance of negative family context for boys

15. Structural factors
Family background, socialization, gender stereotypes, masculinity
Pupils’ school engagement might be affected by gender stereotypes, i.e., that school activities are feminine.
Masculine norms might be related to school absences and decreasing school engagement.

16. Findings – Interventions addressing gender differences in academic achievement

17. 30 Studies (12 with robust design) Non-cognitive skills
Intervention studies
30 Studies (12 with robust design)
Non-cognitive skills
2 studies
Digital devices (e.g., video game)
9 studies (2 with robust design)
Instruction and assessment
9 studies (5 with robust design)
Physical activity and information
2 studies with robust design
Reading, writing and mathematics
8 studies (3 with robust design)

18. Interventions addressing non-cognitive skills
3 studies
Increased physical activity appears to reduce behavioral problems for both, girls and boys.
Some evidence that girls increase their achievement in mathematics.
Lack of evidence in how interventions addressing non-cognitive skills can add to reduce gender differences in academic achievement.

19. Interventions: Digital devices
9 studies
In general, lack of studies of high quality
Showing some effect of digital devices such as games and virtual classroom
Some indication that digital learning systems addressing adapted learning can reduce gender differences
However, limited transferability to Norwegian context: 1 American study with high share of minority pupils and pupils with low SES
We need more studies with rigorous methodology to draw conclusions on the effect of digital devices on gender differences.

20. Interventions addressing instruction and assessment related to literacy skills
9 studies
Indication that more language instruction might detriment boys’ mathematic grades
For intervention studies it is important to control for non-intended effects on secondary outcomes
Supportive reading instruction does not seem to reduce gender differences in language skills
Increased physical activity does not seem to reduce gender differences in language skills

21. Discussion and conclusion

22. Methodological limitations
A systematic review needs to have a specifically defined review question to provide a representative picture
PICO: Population, intervention, comparison, outcome
The review question at hand included
two separate review questions on causal factors and interventions
Addressing several disciplines, topics
Implications for evidence to be presented
We might provide a rough picture, but not exhaustive picture of the evidence on causal factors and interventions
Primary studies might have been neglected due to methodological flaws (literature search; databases) and during inclusion process.
Implications for further research
Definition of more specified review questions for specific topics of interest

23. Conclusion: Motivation and motivational belief
No clear explanation could be found for gender differences in non-cognitive skills
Lack of evidence in terms of interventions addressing non-cognitive skills to reduce gender differences
Need of several rigorously conducted studies addressing causal mechanisms of cognitive and non-cognitive factors.

24. Conclusion: Grading and assessment
Girls achievement is assessed more positively
Intervention studies show that boys perform better when tested ranking-based methods
Implications for further research
Systematic review addressing a more specified review question
Primary studies: How do different assessment methods affect pupils of different achievement level.

25. Conclusion: Digital devices
Studies addressing the effect of digital devices - a dynamic research area
Implications for research: a systematic review addressing
gender differences in academic achievement
illuminating which elements are crucial if digital devices might increase the quality of the intervention (e.g., feedback, individual adaption)

26. Conclusion: Interaction of several causal factors
Gender differences in school achievement can be a result of different individual, structural and school-related factors
Few studies did address interaction of several causal factors
Implication for further research
More primary studies with rigorous method needed.