1. McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Motivation: Background and Theories
Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes
Chapter 5

3. Learning Objectives
Define motivation in practical terms that would be meaningful to managers in organizations
Compare the content and process explanations and theories of motivation
Describe how equity theory explains employees’ reactions to pay and compensation decisions

4. Learning Objectives
Discuss why individual needs and preferences change over the course of a career
Explain the motivational force for a behavior, action, or task
As a function of three distinct perceptions made by an individual

5. Motivation Puzzle
Managers must excel at addressing the needs and goals of employees
No one motivational approach works for all
Individuals differ in…
Their desired rewards
How they attempt to satisfy those needs
How they view the fairness of rewards
Their view of the work environment

6. Key Employee Differences
Veterans (born )
Believe in hard work, dedication, sacrifice, and respect for authority
Have a great deal or organizational knowledge and remain influential
Boomers (born )
Characterized by optimism, teamwork, healthy lifestyles, personal gratification
Will “go the extra mile” to get the job done
Enjoy their careers

7. Key Employee Differences
Gen Xers (born )
Understands the importance of diversity, work-life balance, self-reliance, fun, and informality
More cynical than other generations
Their “it’s only a job” attitude puts them in direct conflict with Boomers

8. Key Employee Differences
Gen Yers (born )
Nexters, Internet Gen, or Echo Boomers
Workplace preferences
A fair boss
Belief in the company
Workplace safety
Training and learning opportunities
Flexible work schedules
Constructive feedback
Timely and fair reward systems

9. Motivation
Theorists have different interpretations and place emphasis on different factors
Motivation is related to behavior and performance
Goal-directedness is involved
It results from events and processes, whether internal or external
Research is still evolving
Many aspects of human motivation remain unexplained

10. Motivation
Motivation is the result of forces acting on an employee that initiate and direct behavior

11. Motivation Motivated employees Look for the best way to do their job
Produce high-quality products or services
Are more likely to be productive
Want to work and become part of the team
Help, support, and encourage coworkers
Are self-confident and decisive

12. Motivation Starting Point
Individuals
All have a deficiency or lack something at a particular point in time
Are more susceptible to motivational efforts when in need
Deficiencies may be
Physiological
Psychological
Sociological

13. The Motivational Process
Need deficiencies VI II
Search for ways to satisfy needs
Employee reassesses need deficiencies
The Employee V
III
Rewards or punishments
Goal-directed behavior IV
Performance (evaluate goals accomplished)

14. Motivation Theories Content Motivation Theories
Focuses on factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain, stop behavior
These factors can only be inferred
Process Motivation Theories
Describe, explain, and analyze how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped

15. Managerial Effectiveness
Content theories suggest that managers
Determine what employee needs trigger desired behaviors
Offer meaningful rewards that satisfy those needs
Know when to offer rewards to optimize behavior
Understand that need deficiencies do not repeat in a regular pattern

16. Managerial Effectiveness
Process theories suggest that managers understand
The process of motivation
How individuals make choices based on preferences, rewards, and accomplishments

17. Content theory founders
Maslow…need hierarchy
Alderfer…ERG theory
Herzberg…two-factor theory
McClelland…learned needs
Process theory founders
Vroom…expectancy of choices
Adams…equity
Skinner…reinforcement
Locke…goal-setting

18. Application of Theories
Content theory
Managers must be aware of differences in needs, desires, and goals because each individual is unique
Process theory
Managers must understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on performances, rewards, and accomplishments

19. Content Theories of Motivation
Human needs, as defined by Maslow’s need hierarchy
Physiological
Safety and security
Belongingness, social, and love
Esteem
Self-actualization

20. Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s need hierarchy assumes
A person attempts to satisfy basic needs before trying to satisfy upper-level needs
Lower-level needs must be satisfied before a higher-level need begins to control a person’s behavior
A satisfied need ceases to motivate

21. Content Theories of Motivation
Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three sets of needs
Existence… satisfied by such things as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions
Relatedness… satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships
Growth… satisfied by making creative or productive contributions

22. Relationships Among Frustration, Importance, Satisfaction of Needs
ERG Theory
Relationships Among Frustration, Importance, Satisfaction of Needs
Frustration
of growth needs
Frustration of
relatedness needs
of existence needs
Importance
Importance of
Satisfaction
Satisfaction of
existence needs

23. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Extrinsic factors
Pay, status, and working conditions
Known as dissatisfiers or hygiene factors
Intrinsic factors
Achievement, increased responsibility, recognition
Known as satisfiers or motivators

24. Traditional View vs. Herzberg
I. TRADITIONAL VIEW
High job dissatisfaction
High job satisfaction
II. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEW
Low job
satisfaction
High job
dissatisfaction
Motivators
Feeling of achievement Meaningful work
Opportunity for advancement Increased responsibility
Recognition Opportunity for growth
Hygienes
Pay Status Job security Working conditions Fringe benefits Policies/Procedures
Interpersonal relations

25. Learned Needs Theory
A person with a strong need will use appropriate behaviors to satisfy the need
Needs are learned from the culture of a society

26. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Achievement (n Ach)
High n Ach persons prefer moderate goals they think they can achieve
Affiliation (n Aff)
High n Aff persons prefer immediate and reliable performance feedback
Power (n Pow)
High n Ach persons like to be responsible for solving problems

27. Measuring n Ach Needs
Needs are measured with the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A person is shown a picture and asked to write a story about it
People tend to write stories that reflect their dominant needs

28. n Ach Needs McClelland encourages managers to
Provide periodic feedback on performance
Point out models of achievement to employees
Work with employees to improve their self-image
Introduce realism into all work-related topics

29. Comparison of Content Theories
Maslow’s need hierarchy
Individuals satisfy basic needs before directing behavior toward higher-order needs
Alderfer’s ERG theory
Those who fail to satisfy growth needs become frustrated, regress, and refocus attention on lower-order needs

30. Comparison of Content Theories
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Some job features and characteristics result in motivation
Others create a comfortable work environment, but don’t motive
McClelland’s learned needs
Needs are learned from the culture
Training and education can enhance and influence a person’s need strength

31. Expectancy Theory
A person who is faced with a set of first-level outcomes will select one based on
The strength (valence) of the desire to achieve a second-level state
The perception of the relationship between first- and second-level outcomes

32. Expectancy Theory (Varoom)
A process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity
Most behaviors are under a person’s voluntary control and are consequently motivated
When faced with a set of first-level outcomes
Employees select outcomes based on how the choice relates to second-level outcomes

33. Expectancy Theory Terminology
First- and second-level outcomes
The result of behaviors
Associated with doing the job itself
First-level outcomes include productivity, absenteeism, turnover, quality
Second-level
Instrumentality
An individual’s perception that first-level outcomes are associated with second-level outcomes

34. Expectancy Theory Terminology
Valence
The strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome
Applies to first- and second-level outcomes
Expectancy
Perceived likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome
Subjective probability

35. Principles of Expectancy Theory
V1 = S(V2 x I)
Valence associated with first-level outcomes is the sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2) attached to all second-level outcomes with their respective instrumentalities (I)
M = f(V1 x E)
Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence for each first-level outcome (V1) and the perceived expectancy (E) that a given behavior will be followed by a particular first-level outcome
P = f(M x A)
Performance is considered a multiplicative function of motivation (f) and ability

36. Expectancy Theory Example
(probability of
performance given
effort)
Performance
outcome
(valences x
instrumentalities)
Instrumentalities (how
much performance
outcome & second-level
outcome are associated
Valences of second-
level outcomes
(in parentheses)
0.6
Day off (6)
Finishing budget
on time (6.9)
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
1.0
0.3
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
2.76
0.4
0.2
Day off (6)
Finishing budget
on required day
but after deadline
(3.2)
Motivation
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
2.24
0.7
0.7
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
-0.1
.20
1.0
0.0
Day off (6)
Finishing budget
on day after
deadline (.20)
0.2
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
-0.4

37. Expectancy Theory Managers should
Focus on employee expectations for success
Actively determine which second-level outcomes are important to employees
Link desired second-level outcomes to the organization’s performance goals

38. Equity Theory
Employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar works situations

39. Equity Theory Important terms
Person: the individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived
Comparison other: any individual(s) or group used as a referent regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes
Inputs: the individual characteristics brought by Person to the job
Outcomes: what Person received from the job

40. Equity Theory
Compares his/her input/ outcome ratio to reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)
and perceives
OP ORP IP IRP
OP ORP IP IRP
(equity) =
(inequity)
> or
IP: Inputs of the person
OP: Outcomes of the person
IRP: Inputs of reference person
ORP: Outcomes of reference person
A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)
<

41. Restoring Equity Change the inputs or outcomes of the reference person
Change your inputs or outcomes
Change the reference person
Change the situation