1. Ch. 5: Social Interaction, Groups & Social Structure

2. Social Interaction and Reality
Social interaction refers to the ways in which people respond to one another
Social structure refers to the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships
Reality is shaped by perceptions, evaluations, and definitions
Nature of social interaction and what constitutes reality varies across cultures
Ability to define social reality reflects group’s power within a society

3. Status
Status: any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society
Person can hold more than one at same time
Ascribed and Achieved Status
Ascribed status: status one is born with
Achieved status: status one earns
Master Status
Status that dominates other statuses and determines a person’s general position in society
In US, ascribed statuses of race and gender can function as master statuses

4. Social Roles What Are Social Roles? Role Conflict Role Strain
Social role: set of expectations for people who occupy a given status
Role Conflict
When incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by same person
Role Strain
Difficulties that arise when same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations

5. Social Roles
Role Exit
Process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s identity to establish a new role
Ebaugh’s four stages:
Doubt
Search for alternatives
Action or departure stage
Creation of a new identity

6. Groups
Group: any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact on a regular basis
Primary and Secondary Groups
Primary group: small group with intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation
Secondary group: formal, impersonal groups with little social intimacy or mutual understanding 6

7. Groups In-Groups and Out-Groups
In-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they belong
Out-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they do not belong
Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can turn violent on a personal as well as political level 7

8. Social Networks
Social network: series of social relationships that links a person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people
Social networks one of five basic elements of social structure
Research indicates that in person and online not everyone participates equally in social networks

9. Social Institutions
Social institution: organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs
Functionalist Perspective
Five major tasks:
Replacing personnel
Teaching new recruits
Producing and distributing goods and services
Preserving order
Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose

10. Social Institutions Conflict Perspective
Major institutions help maintain privileges of most powerful individuals and groups within society
Social institutions such as education have inherently conservative natures
Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments

11. Social Institutions Interactionist Perspective
Social institutions affect everyday behavior
Social behavior conditioned by roles and statuses we accept

12. Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies
Formal organization: group designed for special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency
In our society, formal organizations fulfill enormous variety of personal and societal needs
Ascribed statuses can influence how we see ourselves within formal organizations 12

13. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy: component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency
Ideal type: a construct or model for evaluating specific cases (Weber)
Weber emphasized basic similarity of structure and process found in dissimilar enterprises of religion, government, education, and business 13

14. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy:
Division of labor
Hierarchy of authority
Written rules and regulations
Impersonality
Employment based on technical qualifications 14

15. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
With a division of labor, specialized experts perform specific tasks
Fragmentation of work can remove connection workers have to overall objective of the bureaucracy
Alienation: condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society
Trained incapacity: workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems 15

16. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Impersonality is a key characteristic
Bureaucratic norms dictate that officials perform duties without personal consideration to people as individuals
A hierarchy of authority means each position is under supervision
Written rules and regulations ensure uniform performance of every task
Provide continuity
Goal displacement: when rules and regulations overshadow larger goals of organization and become dysfunctional 16

17. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
Bureaucratization as a Process
Bureaucratization: process by which group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic
Can take place within small group settings
Oligarchy: Rule by a Few
Iron law of oligarchy: even a democratic organization eventually develops into a bureaucracy ruled by a few 17

18. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach
Human societies undergo process of change characterized by dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution
Level of technology critical
Technology: “cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires” (Nolan and Lenski 2009:357)

19. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach
Preindustrial Societies
Hunting-and-gathering society: people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available
Horticultural societies: people plant seeds and crops
Agrarian societies: people are primarily engaged in production of food; more specialized than horticultural society

20. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach
Industrial Societies
Societies that depend on mechanization to produce its goods and services
People depend on mechanization to produce goods and services
People rely on inventions and energy sources
People move away from family as a self-sufficient production unit

21. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach
Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies
Postindustrial society: economic system engaged primarily in processing and controlling information
Postmodern society: technologically sophisticated society preoccupied with consumer goods and media images