1. Chapter 7 Periodic Properties of the Elements
Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.;
and Bruce E. Bursten
Chapter 7 Periodic Properties of the Elements
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Cottleville, MO
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2. Development of Periodic Table
Elements in the same group generally have similar chemical properties.
Physical properties are not necessarily similar, however.
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3. Development of Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer independently came to the same conclusion about how elements should be grouped.
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4. Development of Periodic Table
Mendeleev predicted the discovery of germanium (which he called eka-silicon) as an element with an atomic weight between that of zinc and arsenic, but with chemical properties similar to those of silicon.
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5. Historical Organization of PT
Mendeleev
Organized PT by atomic mass
Mosley
By atomic number
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6. Periodic Trends
In this chapter, we will give reasons for observed trends in
Sizes of atoms and ions.
Ionization energy.
Electron affinity.
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7. Effective Nuclear Charge
In a many-electron atom, electrons are both attracted to the nucleus and repelled by other electrons.
The nuclear charge that an electron experiences depends on both factors.
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8. Coulomb’s Law (ds)
Quantifies electrical force existing between to charged particles
Q1 and Q2 are charges, k is a constant, and d is the distance between the centers of the particles
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9. Effective Nuclear Charge
The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, is found this way:
Zeff = Z − S
where Z is the atomic number and S is a screening constant, usually close to the number of inner electrons.
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10. What Is the Size of an Atom?
The bonding atomic radius is defined as one-half of the distance between covalently bonded nuclei.
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11. Sizes of Atoms Bonding atomic radius tends to…
…decrease from left to right across a row
(due to increasing Zeff).
…increase from top to bottom of a column
(due to increasing value of n).
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12. Sizes of Ions Ionic size depends upon: The nuclear charge.
The number of electrons.
The orbitals in which electrons reside.
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13. Sizes of Ions Cations are smaller than their parent atoms.
The outermost electron is removed and repulsions between electrons are reduced.
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14. Sizes of Ions Anions are larger than their parent atoms.
Electrons are added and repulsions between electrons are increased.
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15. Sizes of Ions Ions increase in size as you go down a column.
This is due to increasing value of n.
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16. Sizes of Ions
In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same number of electrons.
Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear charge.
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17. Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of a gaseous atom or ion.
The first ionization energy is that energy required to remove first electron.
The second ionization energy is that energy required to remove second electron, etc.
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18. Ionization Energy
It requires more energy to remove each successive electron.
When all valence electrons have been removed, the ionization energy takes a quantum leap.
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19. Trends in First Ionization Energies
As one goes down a column, less energy is required to remove the first electron.
For atoms in the same group, Zeff is essentially the same, but the valence electrons are farther from the nucleus. ↑→
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20. Trends in First Ionization Energies
Generally, as one goes across a row, it gets harder to remove an electron.
As you go from left to right, Zeff increases. ↑→
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21. Trends in First Ionization Energies
However, there are two apparent discontinuities in this trend. ↑→
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22. Trends in First Ionization Energies
The first occurs between Groups IIA and IIIA.
In this case the electron is removed from a p-orbital rather than an s-orbital.
The electron removed is farther from nucleus.
There is also a small amount of repulsion by the s electrons.
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23. Trends in First Ionization Energies
The second occurs between Groups VA and VIA.
The electron removed comes from doubly occupied orbital.
Repulsion from the other electron in the orbital aids in its removal.
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24. Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the energy change accompanying the addition of an electron to a gaseous atom:
Cl + e−  Cl−
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25. Trends in Electron Affinity
In general, electron affinity becomes more exothermic as you go from left to right across a row. ↑→
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26. Trends in Electron Affinity
There are again, however, two discontinuities in this trend.
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27. Trends in Electron Affinity
The first occurs between Groups IA and IIA.
The added electron must go in a p-orbital, not an s-orbital.
The electron is farther from nucleus and feels repulsion from the s-electrons.
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28. Trends in Electron Affinity
The second occurs between Groups IVA and VA.
Group VA has no empty orbitals.
The extra electron must go into an already occupied orbital, creating repulsion.
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29. Properties of Metal, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
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30. Metals versus Nonmetals
Differences between metals and nonmetals tend to revolve around these properties.
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31. Metals versus Nonmetals
Metals tend to form cations.
Low ionization energy (Ei)
Nonmetals tend to form anions.
High ionization energy
High electron affinity (<< 0, e.g. for -328 kJ/mol for Cl
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32. Metals
They tend to be lustrous, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity.
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33. Metals Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals tend to be ionic.
Metal oxides tend to be basic.
Metal oxide + water  metal hydroxide
Na2O (s) + H2O (l)  2NaOH (aq)
Metal oxide + acid  salt + water
MgO (s) + HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
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34. General Chemistry of Metals
React with nonmetals → ionic cpds
React with O2 to form oxides
Metal oxides are basic
If soluble, react with H2O → hydroxide ion
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)
O2-(aq) + H2O(l) → 2OH-(aq)
React with acids → salt + H2O
NiO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Ni(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
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35. Nonmetals
These are dull, brittle substances that are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
They tend to gain electrons in reactions with metals to acquire a noble gas configuration.
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36. Nonmetals
Substances containing only nonmetals are molecular compounds.
Most nonmetal oxides are acidic.
Nonmetal oxide + water  acid
P4O10 (s) + 6H2O (l)  4H3PO4 (aq)
Nonmetal oxide + base  salt + water
SO3 (g) + 2 KOH (aq)  K2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
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37. General Chemistry of Non-Metals
Reat with metals → ionic cpds
React with non-metals → molecular cpds
Non-metal oxides are acidic
React with water → acids
P4O10(s) + 6 H2O(l) → 4 H3PO4(aq)
React with bases → salt + water
CO2(g) + 2 NaOH(aq) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
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38. Metalloids
These have some characteristics of metals and some of nonmetals.
For instance, silicon looks shiny, but is brittle and fairly poor conductor.
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39. Group Trends
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40. Alkali Metals Alkali metals are soft, metallic solids.
The name comes from the Arabic word for ashes.
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41. Alkali Metals
They are found only in compounds in nature, not in their elemental forms.
They have low densities and melting points.
They also have low ionization energies.
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42. Alkali Metals Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.
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43. Alkali Metals
Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to form peroxides. (O-)
K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides (O2-):
K + O2  KO2
They produce bright colors when placed in a flame.
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44. Alkaline Earth Metals
Alkaline earth metals have higher densities and melting points than alkali metals.
Their ionization energies are low, but not as low as those of alkali metals.
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45. Alkaline Earth Metals
Beryllium does not react with water and magnesium reacts only with steam, but the others react readily with water.
Reactivity tends to increase as you go down the group.
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46. Group 16 (6A) Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.
Tellurium is a metalloid.
The radioactive polonium is a metal.
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47. Oxygen There are two allotropes of oxygen: There can be three anions:
O3, ozone
There can be three anions:
O2−, oxide
O22−, peroxide
O21−, superoxide
It tends to take electrons from other elements (oxidation).
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48. Sulfur Sulfur is a weaker oxidizer than oxygen.
The most stable allotrope is S8, a ringed molecule.
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49. Group 17 (VIIA): Halogens
The halogens are prototypical nonmetals.
The name comes from the Greek words halos and gennao: “salt formers”.
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50. Group 17 (VIIA): Halogens
They have large, negative electron affinities.
Therefore, they tend to oxidize other elements easily.
They react directly with metals to form metal halides.
Chlorine is added to water supplies to serve as a disinfectant
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51. Group 18 (VIIIA): Noble Gases
The noble gases have astronomical ionization energies.
Their electron affinities are positive.
Therefore, they are relatively unreactive.
They are found as monatomic gases.
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52. Group (VIIIA): Noble Gases
Xe forms three compounds:
XeF2
XeF4 (at right)
XeF6
Kr forms only one stable compound:
KrF2
The unstable HArF was synthesized in 2000.
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