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Chapter 1: Worlds in Motion 1450-1550
Of the People Chapter 1: Worlds in Motion New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Common Threads In which ways might the Native American societies before the arrival of Europeans be considered democratic? What forces shaped their societies? How did Europeans’ prior experiences affect their actions in the New World? In which ways did they adapt to new circumstances? What made conquest possible? What different forms did it take? What role did gender play in conquest? What were the intended and unintended consequences of conquest?
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Chapter Overview The World of the Indian Peoples
The Worlds of Christopher Columbus Collision in the Caribbean Onto the Mainland The Consequences of Conquest
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The World of the Indian Peoples Overview
Great Migrations The Emergence of Farming The Cradle of the Americas The Northern World Takes Shape
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The Worlds of Christopher Columbus Overview
The Reconquista The Age of Exploration New Ideas Take Root
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Collision in the Caribbean Overview
Columbus’s First Voyage The Origins of a New World Political and Economic Order The Division of the World
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Onto the Mainland Overview
The First Florida Ventures The Conquest of Mexico The Establishment of a Spanish Empire The Return to North America
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The Consequences of Conquest Overview
Demographic Disaster The Columbian Exchange Men’s and Women’s Lives
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Conclusion Overview Review Questions Critical-Thinking Questions
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American Portrait: Malinche: Cultural Translator
“In the long period of encounter and conquest initiated by the Spanish arrival in the new world, cultural translators. . . would possess unique power. In translating one world to the other, they helped create a new world, one very different from any that had ever existed before.” What “new world” did Malinche help create? What does this story reveal about the relative powers of the Spanish and the indigenous peoples in this new world? What unique power did cultural translators, such as Malinche, wield in this arrangement?
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Malinche: Cultural Translator
Gianni Dagli Orti/National History Museum, Mexico City/The Art Archive/Art Resource, NY
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The World of Indian Peoples
Great Migrations What do we know about the three great waves of migration that occurred roughly between 12,000 and 9000 BCE? (How do we know?) How and why did Indians modify their survival strategies during the early stretches of the Archaic period? The Emergence of Farming Why didn’t Indians quickly transition to full-time agriculture when they first migrated south, into the warmer climates of the Americas? What did it take for Indians to overcome the obstacles to full-time farming? What was the (revolutionary) impact of such technological innovations?
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Image of Community of Cahokia
Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site. Photo by Art Grossman.
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The World of Christopher Columbus
“In the world into which Christopher Columbus was born, Europe was peripheral.” The Reconquista Context: Muslim conquerors (“Moors”) seized control of most of the Iberian Peninsula by 711 CE What were the economic factors that fueled this political takeover? How and why did Muslim rulers incorporate (tolerate) Christians and Jews? Beginning: Alfonso VI of Castile retook Toledo in 1085 What were the political, economic, and religious elements of his reconquest? How did these elements reinforce one another? Conclusion: Takeover of Granada, 1492 How did the 1469 marriage of Isabel, princess of Castile, and her cousin Ferdinand, prince of Aragon, pave the way to victory in Grenada? What would be the role (place) of Muslims and Jews in this Spanish nation?
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The World of Christopher Columbus (continued)
The Age of Exploration How does the story of the Reconquista reflect the (political, economic, and religious) posture Western European monarchs and princes would adopt vis-à-vis Muslim traders who controlled the overland trade routes to the Far East? What was at stake in controlling these routes? What were some of the key technological innovations that would propel European ships into the Atlantic? How did the Portuguese emerge as the first leaders in deep sea navigation? What was the role of Africa in the expansion of Portuguese exploration and trade? New Ideas Take Root Portuguese‒Sub-Saharan trade complex What items moved in, and out of, these coastal African kingdoms? How did the sugar plantations developed by the Portuguese on Madeira Island (and the Spanish on the Canary Islands) revolutionize the slave trade?
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Collision in the Caribbean
Columbus’s First Voyage Christopher Columbus Finds a Patron How was Columbus able to persuade the Spanish monarchy to finance his voyage? Columbus Finds a New World Columbus takes possession of “San Salvador” How did Columbus describe the first “Indians” he encountered? What was the future relationship that Columbus anticipated between Spain and the Arawaks (Tainos)? What political, economic, and religious elements did it entail? How do you think the Arawaks’ opinions of the Spaniards quickly changed during Columbus’s visit? How and why would the Caribs dictate a different kind of policy from the Spanish?
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Christopher Columbus Image copyright © The Metropolitan Museum of Art /Corbis
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Collision in the Caribbean
The Origins of a New World Political and Economic Order Why did Columbus’s failure to find expected gold treasures in the New World lead to violence inflicted on Indians? How and why did Queen Isabella attempt to offset this violence? How was the encomienda system intended to balance the Queen’s economic and humanitarian concerns? What was the reality of this system in the New World? The Division of the World Portuguese versus Spanish interests: The Pope arranges the Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494 What were the future unintended consequences of this treaty in America? English (John Cabot’s) exploration and claim of Newfoundland in 1497 Then, Amerigo Vespucci's exploration of South America in 1499 gave birth to a European cartographic and conceptual revolution, which bore his name: America
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Onto the Mainland The First Florida Ventures
Juan Ponce de León and the Calusa How and why did his 1513 and 1521 explorations of Florida differ so dramatically? What was the devastating legacy for Florida Indians of these early Spanish forays? The Conquest of Mexico The Aztec civilization, at 1500 Capital: Tenochtitlán (population 200,000); How did King Moctezuma II expand the Aztec empire? Cortés’s march to Tenochtitlán, 1519 On the way, Cortés and Moctezuma marshal Indian allies The Spaniards arrive: Unwelcome yet honored guests Cortés’s attempt to leverage the Aztecs by capturing Moctezuma ends terribly for the Spanish and their hostage Cortés and the surviving Spaniards retreat and regroup among their Tlaxcalan allies Fully reprovisioned and facing an enemy reeling from disease (unwittingly introduced by the Spaniards), Cortés returns to Tenochtitlán and defeats the Aztecs, 1521
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Onto the Mainland (continued)
The Establishment of a Spanish Empire Center The transformation of Tenochtitlán to Mexico City Expansion Takeover of the Incan Empire in Peru Borderland outposts in present-day New Mexico The Return to North America The Return to Florida Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, 1526 Pánfilo de Narváez, 1528 Hernando de Soto, 1539‒1542 How did de Soto’s actions reflect that of a classic conquistador? Coronado and the Pueblo Indians, 1539‒1541 How did Coronado and his men’s expectations of finding gold set the stage for a violent confrontation with Native Americans?
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Timucua Indians, 1591 The Granger Collection
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The Consequences of Conquest
Demographic Disaster What was the scale and scope of the rapid decline of Native populations? Why did the introduction of smallpox, typhus, and influenza have such a devastating impact? The Columbian Exchange What constituted the so-called Columbian Exchange? How and why did plants and animals introduced into the New World tend to assist the colonizers at the same time that they harmed the colonized? Men’s and Women’s Lives What role did gender play in organizing Native American, African, and European societies? What role did gender play in conquest?
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Defeat of the Tlaxcalahns
Benson Latin American Collection, University of Texas, Austin
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Pueblo Bonita Getty Images/DEA/SIOEN/Contributor
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Pueblo Bonita Ruins Getty Images/Education Images/Contributor
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Review Questions Describe the development of Indian civilizations in Central and North America from Archaic times until What were the major forces of change within these early populations? What were the forces that led Europeans, particularly Spain, to explore the New World? What was the impact of European conquest on the population and environment of the New World?
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Critical-Thinking Questions
Compare older ways of explaining the conquest (such as Moctezuma’s supposed belief that Hernán Cortés was a god) with scholars’ more recent explanations. What beliefs about Native Americans does each set of explanations reflect? How would Native American men and women have experienced conquest differently? Compare Spain’s treatment of Muslims and Jews in Spain following the reconquista with the country’s later treatment of conquered Native Americans in the New World. Do you think these groups received similar or different treatment?
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