1. Village Elections
Grassroots democracy

2. Political Reforms in 1980s ``Socialist democracy and legal system”
Correcting the arbitrariness of the Cultural Revolution
Mobilizing initiatives for economic reform and growth

3. PRC Constitution of 1982
Article The residents' committees and villagers' committees established among urban and rural residents on the basis of their place of residence are mass organizations of self- governance at the grass-roots level. The chairman, vice-chairmen and members of each residents' or villagers' committee are elected by the residents.

4. National People’s Congress
The ``Organic Law of Villager’s Committees (for trial implementation)” was passed in 1987 after over a year of debate
A final revised version of the Organic Law was passed in 1998
                    

5. Party Elders’ Support
Peng Zhen, Chair of the 6th NPC Standing Committee (1983 – 1987) pushed the Organic Law through NPC

6. His Argument 1: CCP Tradition
In 1930s the ``new democratic government” included non-Communist personages
``Mass line” emphasized public participation
Served the purpose of fighting the Japanese army

7. His Argument 2: ``Socialist democracy”
For the leadership, strengthening people’s congresses
For the masses, villagers’ self-governance and autonomy
Help to boost democratic consciousness

8. His Argument 3: Improve cadre-mass relations
``Some rural leaders had become `local emperors’”
``villagers would sooner or later attack our rural cadres with their shoulder poles”
``Who supervises rural cadres? Can we supervise them? No, not even if we had 48 hours a day”

9. Risk of Rural Unrest
``People’s communes” were replaced with township governments in early 1980s
Local cadres lost distributive power
Villagers became more knowledgeable and less dependent on cadres
Dysfunction and disintegration of local Party organizations
Incompetence and corruption of cadres

10. Implementing Village Elections
Party elders advocate
National People’s Congress
debate
Ministry of Civic Affairs
implement
Opposition by local cadres
Popular demands for village elections

11. Opposition to Village Elections
Provincial misgivings
slow in passing enforcement guidelines
Lower levels worry about effects on
policy implementation
potential instability
Opposition has been the most intense from township cadres

12. Township’s Opposition
``Presently villagers don’t know how to govern themselves”
``I already have difficulty leading village cadres. I guarantee that guiding them will not work”
``Elections at higher levels are all scams, why should village elections be taken any more seriously?”

13. Popular Demands
Some refused to cooperate with township-appointed cadres
Some confront township leaders on election issues
Some sought support from higher-level officials

14. Actual Implementation
Enormous local variation in implementation
Some villages have conducted free and fair elections
Voting irregularities are often reported
Some township officials fix or sabotage village elections
Some party branches controlled nomination

15. Impact of Village Elections
Elections make cadres more accountable to villagers
Closer cadre-villager relationship smooths policy implementation
Often elected cadres deliver on their pledges and produce material benefits for a community

16. Party Branch at Village Level
Relationship between villager committee and Party branch
``Contradictions” between director of village committee and Party branch secretary
The 1998 version of the Organic Law asserts the role of the Communist Party in ``guaranteeing that villagers ... directly exercise their democratic rights”

17. Township and Village
Relationship between village committee and township governments
Implementation of unpopular policies, such as birth control, taxation, and fees
Village leaders are responsive to both old and newly emerging constituencies
selectorates above (township government)
electorates below (villagers)

18. New Developments
``Two-ballot system” in election of Party branch members
Experiments with direct election of township officials
Direct elections of residents’ committees since 1999 in urban areas