1. 9
The Endocrine System

2. The Endocrine System Second controlling system of the body
Nervous system is the fast-control system
Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that are released into the blood
Hormones control several major processes
Reproduction
Growth and development
Mobilization of body defenses
Maintenance of much of homeostasis
Regulation of metabolism

3. Hormone Overview Hormones are produced by specialized cells
Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
Blood transfers hormones to target sites
These hormones regulate the activity of other cells

4. The Chemistry of Hormones
Hormones are classified chemically as
Amino acid–based, which includes
Proteins
Peptides
Amines
Steroids—made from cholesterol
Prostaglandins—made from highly active lipids

5. Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells or target organs)
Target cells must have specific protein receptors
Hormone-binding alters cellular activity

6. Effects Caused by Hormones
Changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state
Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
Activation or inactivation of enzymes
Stimulation of mitosis
Promotion of secretory activity

7. The Chemistry of Hormones
Two mechanisms in which hormones act
Direct gene activation
Second-messenger system

8. Direct Gene Activation (Steroid Hormone Action)
Diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
Enter the nucleus
Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus
Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
Activate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins

9. Hormone- receptor complex
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Steroid hormone
Receptor protein 1 2 3
Hormone- receptor complex 4
DNA
mRNA 5
New protein
Plasma membrane of target cell 6
(a) Steroid hormone action
Figure 9.1a

10. Second-Messenger System (Nonsteroid Hormone Action)
Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
Hormone does not enter the cell
Sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme
Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second-messenger molecule (such as cAMP)
Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific response

11. Nonsteroid hormone (first messenger) Cytoplasm
Enzyme
ATP 1 3 2
Second messenger
cAMP 4
Receptor protein
Effect on cellular function, such as glycogen breakdown
Plasma membrane of target cell
(b) Nonsteroid hormone action
Figure 9.1b

12. Control of Hormone Release
Hormone levels in the blood are mostly maintained by negative feedback
A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood triggers the release of more hormone
Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the blood is reached

13. Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
Most common stimuli
Endocrine glands are activated by other hormones
Examples:
Anterior pituitary hormones travel to target glands, such as the thyroid gland, to prompt the release of a particular hormone, such as thyroid hormone

14. (a) Hormonal stimulus 1 The hypothalamus secretes hormones that…2
…stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete hormones that…
Anterior pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Adrenal cortex
Gonad (Testis)
…stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones 3
Figure 9.2a

15. Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
Changing blood levels of certain ions stimulate hormone release
Humoral indicates various body fluids such as blood and bile
Examples:
Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are produced in response to changing levels of blood calcium levels
Insulin is produced in response to changing levels of blood glucose levels

16. (b) Humoral stimulus 1
Capillary blood contains low concentration of Ca2+, which stimulates…
Capillary (low Ca2+ in blood)
Thyroid gland (posterior view)
Parathyroid glands
Parathyroid glands
PTH 2
…secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) by parathyroid glands
Figure 9.2b

17. Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release
Most are under the control of the sympathetic nervous system
Examples:
The release of norepinephrine and epinephrine by the adrenal medulla

18. (c) Neural stimulus 1
Preganglionic sympathetic fiber stimulates adrenal medulla cells…
CNS (spinal cord)
Preganglionic sympathetic fibers
Medulla of adrenal gland
Capillary
…to secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) 2
Figure 9.2c

19. Major Endocrine Organs
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Adrenal glands
Pineal gland
Thymus gland
Pancreas
Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)
Hypothalamus

20. Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Figure 9.3

21. Pituitary Gland Size of a pea
Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus in the brain
Protected by the sphenoid bone
Has two functional lobes
Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue
Often called the “master endocrine gland”

22. Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Six anterior pituitary hormones
Two affect non-endocrine targets
Growth hormone
Prolactin
Four stimulate other endocrine glands (tropic hormones)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropic hormone)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Two gonadotropic hormones

23. Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Characteristics of all anterior pituitary hormones
Proteins (or peptides)
Act through second-messenger systems
Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly negative feedback

24. Releasing hormones
secreted into portal
circulation
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary
Hypophyseal
portal system
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH)
Growth hormone (GH)
Bones and muscles
Prolactin (PRL)
Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
and luteinizing
hormone (LH)
Thyrotropic
hormone (TH)
Adrenal cortex
Mammary
glands
Thyroid
Testes or ovaries
Figure 9.4

25. Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Growth hormone
General metabolic hormone
Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
Plays a role in determining final body size
Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy

26. Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Growth hormone (GH) disorders
Pituitary dwarfism results from hyposecretion of GH during childhood
Gigantism results from hypersecretion of GH during childhood
Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of GH during adulthood

27. Pituitary dwarf (left), Giant (center), Normal height woman (right)
Figure 9.5

28. Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Prolactin (PRL)
Stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth
Function in males is unknown
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Influences growth and activity of the thyroid gland

29. Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Gonadotropic hormones
Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
Stimulates sperm development in testes
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Triggers ovulation of an egg in females
Stimulates testosterone production in males

30. Pituitary–Hypothalamus Relationship
Hormonal release is regulated by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus produces two hormones
These hormones are transported to neurosecretory cells of the posterior pituitary
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone
The posterior pituitary is not strictly an endocrine gland, but does release hormones

31. Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin
Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor, sexual relations, and breastfeeding
Causes milk ejection in a nursing woman

32. Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Inhibits urine production by promoting water reabsorption by the kidneys
In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure
Also known as vasopressin

33. Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
cells
Optic
chiasma
Hypothalamus
Axon
terminals
Arterial blood supply
Posterior lobe
Capillary bed
Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary
ADH
Oxytocin
Kidney tubules
Mammary glands
Uterine muscles
Figure 9.6

34. Thyroid Gland Found at the base of the throat
Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
Produces two hormones
Thyroid hormone
Calcitonin 34

35. (a) Gross anatomy of the thyroid gland, anterior view
Thyroid cartilage
Epiglottis
Common carotid
artery
Isthmus of
thyroid gland
Trachea
Left subclavian
artery
Brachiocephalic
artery
Left lobe of
thyroid gland
Aorta
(a) Gross anatomy of the thyroid gland, anterior view
Figure 9.7a 35

36. Thyroid Gland Thyroid hormone Major metabolic hormone
Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
Thyroxine (T4)—secreted by thyroid follicles
Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at target tissues 36

37. Follicle cells Parafollicular cell
Colloid-filled
follicles
Follicle cells
Parafollicular cell
(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland
follicles (125×)
Figure 9.7b 37

38. Thyroid Gland Thyroid hormone disorders Goiters
Thyroid gland enlarges due to lack of iodine
Salt is iodized to prevent goiters
Cretinism
Caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine
Results in dwarfism during childhood 38

39. Figure 9.8 39

40. Thyroid Gland Thyroid hormone disorders (continued) Myxedema
Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
Results in physical and mental slugishness
Graves’ disease
Caused by hyperthyroidism
Results in increased metabolism, heat intolerance, rapid heartbeat, weight loss, and exophthalmos 40

41. Figure 9.9 41

42. Thyroid Gland Calcitonin
Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on bone
Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
Produced by parafollicular cells
Parafollicular cells are found between the follicles 42

43. Follicle cells Parafollicular cell
Colloid-filled
follicles
Follicle cells
Parafollicular cell
(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland
follicles (125×)
Figure 9.7b 43

44. Parathyroid Glands Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
Raise calcium levels in the blood 44

45. Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 ml
Calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposit in bone.
Thyroid gland
releases calcitonin.
Stimulus
Rising blood
Ca2+ levels
IMBALANCE
Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 ml
BALANCE
BALANCE
Stimulus
Falling blood
Ca2+ levels
IMBALANCE
Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone
matrix and
release Ca2+
into blood.
Parathyroid
glands
Parathyroid
glands release
parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
PTH
Figure 9.10 45

46. Adrenal Glands Sit on top of the kidneys Two regions
Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has three layers
Mineralocorticoids secreted by outermost layer
Glucocorticoids secreted by middle layer
Sex hormones secreted by innermost layer
Adrenal medulla—inner neural tissue region 46

47. Capsule Kidney Adrenal gland Cortex Kidney Medulla
Mineralocorticoid-
secreting area
Kidney
Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal gland
Adrenal
cortex
• Medulla
Cortex
• Cortex
Sex hormone
secreting area
Kidney
Adrenal
medulla
Medulla
Figure 9.11 47

48. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
Produced in outer adrenal cortex
Regulate mineral content in blood
Regulate water and electrolyte balance
Target organ is the kidney
Production stimulated by renin and aldosterone
Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) 48

49. Figure 9.12 49 Decreased Na+ or increased K+ in blood Stress
Hypothalamus
Decreased
blood volume
and/or blood
pressure
Corticotropin-
releasing hormone
Anterior pituitary
Increased
blood pressure
or blood volume
ACTH
Kidney
Renin
Heart
Indirect
stimulating
effect via
angiotensin
Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
Angiotensin II
Direct
stimulating
effect
Inhibitory
effect
Mineralocorticoid-
producing part of
adrenal cortex
Enhanced secretion
of aldosterone targets
kidney tubules
Increased absorption
of Na+ and water;
increased K+ excretion
Increased blood
volume and
blood pressure
Figure 9.12 49

50. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
Promote normal cell metabolism
Help resist long-term stressors
Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH 50

51. Short-term stress response Long-term stress response
More prolonged
Hypothalamus
Releasing hormones
Nerve impulses
Spinal cord
Corticotropic cells of
anterior pituitary
ACTH
Adrenal
cortex
Preganglionic
sympathetic
fibers
Adrenal
medulla
Mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Short-term stress response
Long-term stress response
Catecholamines
(epinephrine and
norepinephrine)
1. Increased heart rate
2. Increased blood pressure
3. Liver converts glycogen
to glucose and releases
glucose to blood
4. Dilation of bronchioles
5. Changes in blood flow
patterns, leading to
increased alertness and
decreased digestive and
kidney activity
6. Increased metabolic rate
1. Retention of sodium
and water by kidneys
2. Increased blood
volume and blood
pressure
1. Proteins and fats
converted to
glucose or broken
down for energy
2. Increased blood
sugar
3. Suppression of
immune system
Figure 9.13 51

52. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
Sex hormones
Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
Small amounts are made throughout life
Mostly androgens (male sex hormones) are made but some estrogens (female sex hormones) are also formed 52

53. Adrenal Glands Adrenal cortex disorders Addison’s disease
Results from hyposecretion of all adrenal cortex hormones
Bronze skin tone, muscles are weak, burnout, susceptibility to infection
Hyperaldosteronism
May result from an ACTH-releasing tumor
Excess water and sodium are retained leading to high blood pressure and edema 53

54. Adrenal Glands Adrenal cortex disorders Cushing’s syndrome
Results from a tumor in the middle cortical area of the adrenal cortex
“Moon face,” “buffalo hump” on the upper back, high blood pressure, hyperglycemia, weakening of bones, depression
Masculinization
Results from hypersecretion of sex hormones
Beard and male distribution of hair growth 54

55. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by
Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels
Dilating small passageways of lungs 55

56. Capsule Kidney Adrenal gland Cortex Kidney Medulla
Mineralocorticoid-
secreting area
Kidney
Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal gland
Adrenal
cortex
• Medulla
Cortex
• Cortex
Sex hormone
secreting area
Kidney
Adrenal
medulla
Medulla
Figure 9.11 56

57. Pancreatic Islets
The pancreas is a mixed gland and has both endocrine and exocrine functions
The pancreatic islets produce hormones
Insulin—allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells from beta cells
Glucagon—allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells
These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis 57

58. Stomach
Pancreas
(a)
Figure 9.14a 58

59. Exocrine
cells of
pancreas
Pancreatic
islets
(b)
Figure 9.14b 59

60. Cord of beta (β) cells secreting insulin into capillaries
Exocrine
cells of
pancreas
Alpha (α)
cells
Capillaries
Cord of beta (β) cells secreting
insulin into capillaries
(c)
Figure 9.14c 60

61. BALANCE: Normal blood glucose level (about 90 mg/100 ml)
Uptake of glucose
from blood is
enhanced in most
body cells
Insulin-secreting cells
of the pancreas
activated; release
insulin into the blood
Insulin
Tissue cells
Pancreas
Glucose
Glycogen
Blood glucose
falls to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
for insulin release
diminishes
Elevated blood
sugar level
Liver takes up
glucose and stores
as glycogen
IMBALANCE
Stimulus
Blood
glucose level
(e.g., after
eating four
jelly doughnuts)
BALANCE: Normal blood glucose level (about 90 mg/100 ml)
Stimulus
Blood glucose
level (e.g., after
skipping a meal)
IMBALANCE
Blood glucose rises
to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
for glucagon
release diminishes
Low blood sugar level
Glucagon-releasing
cells of pancreas
activated; release
glucagon into blood
Liver breaks
down glycogen
stores and
releases
glucose to the
blood
Glucose
Glycogen
Liver
Glucagon
Figure 9.15 61

62. Pineal Gland Found on the third ventricle of the brain
Secretes melatonin
Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
Believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility in humans 62

63. Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Figure 9.3 63

64. Thymus Gland Located posterior to the sternum
Largest in infants and children
Produces thymosin
Matures some types of white blood cells
Important in developing the immune system 64

65. Gonads Ovaries Produce eggs Produce two groups of steroid hormone
Estrogens
Progesterone
Testes
Produce sperm
Produce androgens, such as testosterone 65

66. Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Figure 9.3 66

67. Hormones of the Ovaries
Estrogens
Stimulate the development of secondary female characteristics
Mature female reproductive organs
With progesterone, estrogens also
Promote breast development
Regulate menstrual cycle 67

68. Hormones of the Ovaries
Progesterone
Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
Helps prepare breasts for lactation 68

69. Hormones of the Testes Produce several androgens
Testosterone is the most important androgen
Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
Required for sperm cell production 69

70. Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs
Parts of the small intestine
Parts of the stomach
Kidneys
Heart
Many other areas have scattered endocrine cells 70

71. Endocrine Function of the Placenta
Produces hormones that maintain the pregnancy
Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the baby
Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in addition to estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones 71

72. Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System
Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old age
Menopause is brought about by lack of efficiency of the ovaries
Problems associated with reduced estrogen are common
Growth hormone production declines with age
Many endocrine glands decrease output with age 72