1. Biopsychology

2. Syllabus
The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral (somatic and autonomic).
The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons. The process of synaptic transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition.
The function of the endocrine system: glands and hormones.
The fight or flight response including the role of adrenaline.
Localisation of function in the brain and hemispheric lateralisation: motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory and language centres; Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, split brain research. Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.
Ways of studying the brain: scanning techniques, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); electroencephalogram (EEGs) and event-related potentials (ERPs); post-mortem examinations.
Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the difference between these rhythms.
The effect of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/wake cycle.

4. The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral (somatic and autonomic).
Central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the processing center for the nervous system. It receives information from and sends information to the peripheral nervous system.
The two main organs of the CNS are the brain and spinal cord. The brain processes and interprets sensory information sent from the spinal cord. Both the brain and spinal cord are protected by three layers of connective tissue called the meninges. Within the central nervous system is a system of hollow cavities called ventricles. The network of linked cavities in the brain (cerebral ventricles) is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. The ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid which is produced by specialized epithelium located within the ventricles called the choroid plexus. Cerebrospinal fluid surrounds, cushions, and protects the brain and spinal cord from trauma. It also assists in the circulation of nutrients to the brain.

5. Peripheral Nervous System
There are two types of cells in the peripheral nervous system. These cells carry information to (sensory nervous cells) and from (motor nervous cells) the central nervous system (CNS). Cells of the sensory nervous system send information to the CNS from internal organs or from external stimuli.
Motor nervous system cells carry information from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands. The motor nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls skeletal muscle as well as external sensory organs such as the skin.
This system is said to be voluntary because the responses can be controlled consciously. Reflex reactions of skeletal muscle however are an exception. These are involuntary reactions to external stimuli.

6. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth and cardiac muscle. This system is also called the involuntary nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can further be divided into the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.
The parasympathetic division controls various functions which include inhibiting heart rate, constricting pupils, and contracting the bladder. The nerves of the sympathetic division often have an opposite effect when they are located within the same organs as parasympathetic nerves. Nerves of the sympathetic division speed up heart rate, dilate pupils, and relax the bladder. The sympathetic system is also involved in the flight or fight response. This is a response to potential danger that results in accelerated heart rate and an increase in metabolic rate.

7. Peripheral Nervous System Division
The peripheral nervous system is divided into the following sections:
Sensory Nervous System - sends information to the CNS from internal organs or from external stimuli.
Motor Nervous System - carries information from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands.
Relay Nervous system – carry messages from one part of the CNS to another They connect the motor and sensory neurons.
Somatic Nervous System - controls skeletal muscle as well as external sensory organs.
Autonomic Nervous System - controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth and cardiac muscle.
Sympathetic - controls activities that increase energy expenditures.
Parasympathetic - controls activities that conserve energy expenditures

9. Teach it.
Next lesson. Really interesting

10. Syllabus
The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral (somatic and autonomic).
The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons. The process of synaptic transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition.
The function of the endocrine system: glands and hormones.
The fight or flight response including the role of adrenaline.
Localisation of function in the brain and hemispheric lateralisation: motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory and language centres; Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, split brain research. Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.
Ways of studying the brain: scanning techniques, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); electroencephalogram (EEGs) and event-related potentials (ERPs); post-mortem examinations.
Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the difference between these rhythms.
The effect of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/wake cycle.

11. Synaptic transmission
The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons. The process of synaptic transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition.
Sensory neurons
Relay neurons
Motor neurons
Synaptic transmission
Neurotransmitters
Excitation
inhibition

12. The Structure of a Neuron
Neurons have many of the same features as other body cells. In addition, neurons have specialized cell structures that enable them to transmit nerve impulses. Different types of neurons are different shapes and sizes. In general, however, they share four common features: dendrites, a cell body (soma), an axon, and branching ends

13. Sensory neurons are coupled to receptors specialised to detect and respond to different attributes of the internal and external environment. The receptors sensitive to changes in light, sound, mechanical and chemical stimuli subserve the sensory modalities of vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste. When mechanical, thermal or chemical stimuli to the skin exceed a certain intensity, they can cause tissue damage and a special set of receptors called nociceptors are activated; these give rise both to protective reflexes and to the sensation of pain (see chapter 5 on Touch and Pain).

14. Motor neurons, which control the activity of muscles, are responsible for all forms of behaviour including speech

15. Interposed between sensory and motor neurons are Interneurones
Interposed between sensory and motor neurons are Interneurones. These are by far the most numerous (in the human brain). Interneurons mediate simple reflexes as well as being responsible for the highest functions of the brain. Glial cells, are known to make an important contribution to the development of the nervous system and to its function in the adult brain.
While much more numerous, they do not transmit information in the way that neurons do.

16. Neurons have an architecture that consists of a cell body and two sets of additional compartments called ‘processes’. One of these sets are called axons; their job is to transmit information from the neuron on to others to which it is connected. The other set are called dendrites - their job is to receive the information being transmitted by the axons of other neurons. Both of these processes participate in the specialised contacts called synapses.

18. The Neuron

19. Synaptic transmission

20. Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles clustered beneath the membrane in the axon terminal, on the presynaptic side of a synapse. They are released into and diffuse across the synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptors in the membrane on the postsynaptic side of the synapse. Release of neurotransmitters usually follows arrival of an action potential at the synapse, but may also follow graded electrical potentials. Low level "baseline" release also occurs without electrical stimulation. Many neurotransmitters are synthesized from plentiful and simple precursors, such as amino acids, which are readily available from the diet and which require only a small number of biosynthetic steps to convert.

21. Major neurotransmitters:
Amino acids: glutamate,[3] aspartate, D-serine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine
Monoamines and other biogenic amines: dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (noradrenaline; NE, NA), epinephrine (adrenaline), histamine, serotonin (SE, 5-HT)
Peptides: somatostatin, substance P, opioid peptides[6]
Others: acetylcholine (ACh), adenosine, anandamide, nitric oxide.

23. Endocrine system
Read and note from Excitation and inhibition page 230 – start of 6.4

24. The endocrine system is a series of glands throughout the body that secrete chemicals (hormones) into the bloodstream; hormones, in turn, affect body functions. The endocrine glands, their locations, and their major functions are given in opposite.

25. Let us learn this.

26. Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.