1. Chapter 6: Learning

2. Chapter Outline Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning

3. Learning Objectives
Understand the role of stimuli and response in classical conditioning.
Understand how operant behavior is voluntary, goal directed, and controlled by consequences.
Understand the role of reinforcement in learning and behavior.
Understand how learning is influenced by observing others.

4. Definition of Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
Three basic forms of learning:
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational learning

5. Classical Conditioning and Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov ( ) was a Russian physiologist and won a Nobel Prize for his work with the digestion in dogs.
He noticed dogs began salivating before food reached their mouths.

6. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response after being paired with another stimulus that naturally elicits that response.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned response (CR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)

7. Figure 6-1: Pavlov’s Apparatus for Studying Classical Conditioning in Dogs

8. Figure 6-2: Classical Conditioning

9. Classical Conditioning and Predicting Events
Acquisition is the initial stage of classical conditioning, during which a previously neutral stimulus begins to acquire the ability to elicit a conditioned response.
Conditioned responses seldom occur at full strength right away, instead, they build gradually.

10. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction is the gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without being paired with the US.
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of no exposure to the CS.

11. Stimuli and Conditioned Response
Stimulus generalization is the tendency for a CR to be elicited by stimulus similar to the CS.
The little Albert experiment: John Watson (1920) used classical conditioning on an 8 month old. He began to generalize fear to white furry objects.
Higher-order conditioning is when a neutral stimulus becomes becomes a CS after being paired with an existing CS.

12. Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if it is followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment.

13. Figure 6-5: Skinner Box

14. Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a process where a stimulus increases the probability of the behavior that it follows.
Reinforcer is any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood that the behavior preceding it will be repeated.

15. Reinforcers (Slide 1 of 2)
Primary reinforcer is naturally reinforcing because it satisfies a biological need (e.g., food, water).
Secondary reinforcer is a stimuli that is learned and becomes reinforcing by being associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., stickers).

16. Reinforcers (Slide 2 of 2)
Positive reinforcer is a stimulus that strengthens a response by presenting a pleasant or desired stimulus after a response (e.g., stickers, candy).
Negative reinforcer is a stimulus that strengthens a response by removing an aversive or unpleasant stimulus after a response (e.g., a rat pressing a bar to end unpleasant sensation).

17. Premack Principle
Premack principle is when more preferred activities act as reinforcers for less preferred activities.
For example, doing a chore so you can go to the movies
Can you give an example of a less enjoyable activity you engage in that is a reinforcer for an activity you enjoy?

18. Punishment
Punishment occurs when a stimulus decreases the probability of the behavior it follows.
Positive punisher: a stimuli that weakens a response by presenting an aversive stimulus after a response.
Negative punisher: a stimuli that weakens a response by removing a positive stimuli after a response.

19. Guidelines for Using Punishment
Punishment must be prompt, relatively strong, and consistently applied.
Why did Skinner not recommend the use of punishment?

20. Drawbacks of Punishment
Threats of punishment are made preceding punishment.
Passive aggressiveness can occur after punishment.
Physical punishment may serve as an aggressive model.
Punishment can unexpectedly shape an unintended behavior.

21. Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Partial reinforcement schedule
Fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule
Variable-reinforcement schedule
Fixed-interval reinforcement schedule
Variable-interval reinforcement schedule

22. Observational Learning (Slide 1 of 2)
Observational learning is learning a behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others.
Observational learning is a central feature of Albert Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory.

23. Observational Learning (Slide 2 of 2)
We often learn aggressive behaviors through observation.
Violence is often seen on TV and in movies.
Violence is depicted in music lyrics and music videos.
Do you think seeing violence affects people?