1. Multilingualism and Language Policies across Europe
Gabrielle Hogan-Brun
University of Bristol
2019/2/1

2. 2019/2/1

3. Approaches to multilingualism
Elimination
Tolerance
Maintenance
2019/2/1

4. Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
Adopted by the Council of Europe in 1994;
came into force in 1998.
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‘The parties undertake to promote the conditions
necessary for persons belonging to national
minorities to maintain their culture and preserve
[…] their language’.
2019/2/1

5. 2019/2/1

6. Changing ethnic composition in the Baltic States from 1923 to 2000
1989
2000/1
Estonia Estonians
Russians Others
92.4% 3.9% 3.7%
61.5% 30.3% %
67.9%
25.6% 6.5%
Latvia Latvians Russians Others
73.4% % 16%
52% 34% 14%
57.7%
29.6%
12.7%
Lithuania Lithuanians Russians Polish Others
84.2% % % 10.1%
79.6% % 7% 4%
83.45%
6.31%
6.74%
3.5%
2019/2/1

7. 2019/2/1

8. Individual multilingualisms
‘As a child I spoke Ukrainian and Polish
with my parents. We also used Yiddish. I
went to a Russian-medium school. Now I
use Lithuanian more often’.
2019/2/1

9. ‘My parents speak Polish. I grew up in a
Russian-medium school. Now I am
studying in Lithuanian at University. I
don’t know which is my first language’.
2019/2/1

10. Language policy aims across Baltic
Encourage bilingualism
secure socio-linguistic function of titular languages
protect minority languages
2019/2/1

11. Competence of the titular languages amongst minority representatives
1989:
2000:
Overall % of minority representatives
Estonia
67 %
80 %
31 %
Latvia
62 %
82 %
43 %
Lithuania
85 %
94 %
18 %
2019/2/1

12. Models of education in the Baltic countries
mainstream
minority-medium
bilingual
(early and late) immersion
2019/2/1

13. Education Law (1998): Latvia
Language of Acquisition of Education (Article 9)
(3) …each educatee shall learn the official language and take examinations testing his or her knowledge of the official language… Amendment
From 1 September 2004, acquisition of the study curriculum in the official language shall be effected according to the proportion of three fifths (=60%) of the total study load.
2019/2/1

14. Ethnic Composition of the Population of Latvia
2019/2/1

15. The educational reform as reflected in the media
Russian-medium press
‘assimilating Latvianization’
moratorium on the reform (till 2007) defending secondary and higher education in Russian
2019/2/1

16. Anti-reform protest actions as reflected in the media
RETURN TO AGGRESSIVE PROTEST
ACTIONS AGAINST EDUCATIONAL REFORM **************
…to vindicate disregard of Russian-speakers’ rights & interests during last 13 years… (Headquarters for the Defence of
Russian Schools)
2019/2/1

17. Russia’s comments on the reform
Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkov (visiting):
‘Everyone should be able to get education in the language given by God’.
Russian Foreign Affairs Minister: ‘[The reform] contradicts human rights (& the
Latvian Constitution).
2019/2/1

18. Russia’s comments… Deputy State Duma Chairman Vladimir Zhirinovsky
…Latvia will be destroyed […] empty spaces will be there if [Latvians] touch Russians and Russian schools (Правда, 27 March 2004).
2019/2/1

19. Russian interests
[…] maltreatment of Russians in the ‘geopolitical space of the former Soviet Union’ could be construed as grounds for Russian military intervention.
Russia’s 1993 military doctrine.
2019/2/1

20. Managing multilingualism
[…] determining a working language management plan will depend on an appreciation of:
- the fruits of the developing sociolinguistic studies of the current linguistic ecology,
- the attitudes and beliefs of the citizens,
and on an honest appraisal of the major forces affecting the linguistic and socioeconomic environment.
2019/2/1