1. Chapter III: Terminology and Arabization: Problems of Multiplicity and Methodology
Part 2

2. What is a “concept”?
1. Concepts are “mental constructs that are used to classify the individual objects in the external or internal world by means of a more or less arbitrary process of abstraction. (ISO)
2. A concept is a unit of content consisting of a set of characteristics.
3. Concepts are the units of knowledge that constitute the mental representations of objects
4. A concept is an element of thought, a mental construct that represents a class of objects.
5. A concept is a unit of thought.

3. 6. Concepts are the result of a selection process of the salient characteristics defining a class of objects and not the individual objects themselves.
7. By means of the process of designation we use terms to refer to concrete and abstract reality, a reality that is external and internal as well as individual and collective.
8. A concept is a unit of knowledge that can be represented and identified uniquely by reference to its characteristics, features, or components. This also means defining its position in the knowledge space.
As ISO states, the characteristics of a concept is its paraphrase or definition. For example: A microsome is: a small particle; found in the cytoplasm of a cell; made up of fragmented endoplasmic reticulum to which ribosome are attached.

4. Creating a term for a concept means making it part of a particular system of related concepts.
So concepts are not discrete separable units that exist in isolation; logical or ontological relations exist between these concepts.

5. Conceptual systems
Within a special subject, concepts are organized in structured sets called conceptual systems
These systems reflect the view of the real world held by the experts in the discipline or activity.
Each conceptual system is a structure that can cover several classes of concepts: objects, properties of these concepts (visual, auditory, perceivable, material, shared, etc.), relationships (equivalent, subordinate, derived, etc.), operations (weld, solder, dissolve, etc.), and so on.

6. Concepts from the logicians’ perspective
According to Kant, three activities are required to create a concept: comparison, reflection, and abstraction.
Comparison enables us to realize similarities and differences,
Reflection helps us realize the characteristics responsible for these similarities or differences, and
consequently we can abstract or identify the essential characteristics that make up the concept.
That is why ISO has described concepts as “the result of a mental process and can be defined as units of thought construct through abstraction”

7. Concept formation:
Within logic, conceptology deals with the nature of concepts, their representation and the relationships between concepts.
If we grasp a segment of reality by a process of cognition, and turn it into a concept by a process of abstraction, the relationships established between objects in the real world and the similarities among these objects reflect the relationships and similarities established between concepts.
Abstraction is a mental operation where the mind moves from parts or items to the whole or class.
The evolution of concepts is accompanied by stages of naming, a process which is called terminologisation .

8. Classification of concepts
Concept type: abstract and concrete.
Classification is an organized method of connecting or disconnecting the ideas formulated in our minds as concepts and of organizing them mentally. Therefore, classifying concepts is the best way to knowledge since when we organize things and concepts in a particular system, we will then have a good list of concepts belonging to a certain field of knowledge.
We can define a concept by analysis, by synonyms, by paraphrase, by synthesis (by identifying relations, by description), by implication, by denotation, by demonstration,
Concepts are further determined by means of the relations they have to other concepts, as well as by definitions, which constitute the descriptive, metalinguistic denotation of concepts.

10. A definition is important because it specifies the designation of a term as distinguished from other terms in the same discipline.
A definition is particularly important because it is the verbal description of a certain concept which makes it distinguishable from other concepts within a system of concepts.

11. Term-concept relation
From the point of view of meaning, terms can be classified by the class of concepts they designate.
We can identify four major conceptual classes (column 1):
Each one of these classes of concepts is predominantly expressed by a particular functional class (column 2):
From the standpoint of their linguistic origin, terms can be created by means of applying the rules of the language itself (e.g., derivation ).
Objects or entities
Processes, operations, actions
Properties, states, qualities
Relationships
Nouns
Verbs, nominalizations of verbs
Adjectives
Adjectives, verbs, prepositions

12. Term formation Formal methods Functional methods Semantic methods
Derivation,
Compounding,
Etc.
Conversion : changing a word’s category (the verb “google” is taken from the noun “google”)
Lexicalization: converting one of the inflected forms of a lexeme into a new word with a different grammatical category (harden v. ̶̶˃ hardening n.)
These methods modify the meaning of a term.
Terms resulting from this methods are classified based on:
Their provenance or origin (general lexicon or specialized terminology)
Type of semantic modification produced:
a. extending the meaning of the base form
b. narrowing the meaning: printer
c. changing the meaning : washer.

13. In classical Arabic heritage: Principles of creating concepts:
Concept and meaning are equivalents. A concept is the mental image or representation of what is spoken about. Concept and meaning are inseparable from an entity, both are the image conjured up in the mind.
Almost all Arab scholars agree on the order of priority when it comes to Arabization methods.
Ahmad Eesa: translation, derivation, allegory, compounding, Arabization.
Khasara: translation, coinage (derivation, allegory), borrowing

14. For an appropriate scientific term to be coined and gain currency, the following is required:
1. There should be consensus among specialists on the term, as they are the ones concerned with it; they will use it widely, and can tell if it needs to be modified or changed in the future.
2. It has to be accurate and acceptable, appropriately designating the new concept.
3. It has to be semantically or lexically related to the new concept.
4. It refers to only one concept. There should not be more than one term for one concept. There should not be one term used to signify more than one concept. A term can only refer to a single concept.

15. Steps of finding an Arabic equivalent for a new foreign scientific term, arranged according to priority:
Find an appropriate and acceptable Arabic word commonly used, not scientific.
Find a classical scientific word
Find a semantically related word
Derive a new word from a common word.
Borrow
Compound
To be dealt with at length in chapter 4

16. Characteristics of scientific terms
Scientific language: facts
Expected to be:
abstract, objective, non-personal, non-exaggerative,
non-surmising, non-suggestive, non-probabilistic,
non-ambiguous, clear, straightforward, exact, accurate, true, experimental, empirical, formal, conservative, terminological,
sharp and to the point, circumlocutory and detailed as required,
non-literary, non-metaphorical, non-prosodic, non-aesthetic, unimaginative, non-fictional, factual, void of embellishment, ornamentation or any decorative words
and illustrative.

17. Scientific terms
1) Accuracy: accurate in reference to something: tonsils / gland 2) Specificity: specific in reference to something: electric apparatus / electric shavers/tape-recorder 3) Clarity of concept and reference: a doctor’s knife / lancet.

18. 4) Conciseness: short, sharp and to the point: oil rig / oil filtration system.
Sandwich: لفافة/صندويشة/عروس // الشاطر و المشطور و ما بينهما/ فطيرة أو لفافة خبز متطاولة
5) Its expression of a precise concept:
reducible conic (قطع مخروطي قابل للاختزال) is a specific concept whereas reducible shape (شكل قابل للاختزال) is vague and loose
megadontia/macrodontia (كبر/ضخامة الأسنان) is a clear concept while “big, old teeth” (أسنان كبيرة قديمة) may be inaccurate.

19. 6) Assignment to a certain field: a scientific terms is preferably assigned to a specific field of knowledge to avoid confusing its different meanings in different texts and contexts.
‘Diabetes’ /sugar (not assigned to a specific field). Sometimes we have to check the context of the term because of multiplicity of sense.
‘Fabricated’: ملفق/محبوك/مفبرك / ‘fabricated food’ أطعمة مصنعة.

20. 7) Stability in use and meaning: the more a scientific term is solidly established, the more trustworthy and stable.
A great number of these terms is stable and well-established throughout history in use and in sense.
But not always. ‘pancreas’: المعثكلة / telephone: إرزيز
8) Semantic relevance to the object: relates to the meaning and function of the scientific term: mobile/جوال.

21. 9) Liability to change with respect to possible future development and expansion through inflection, derivation and new coinage in accordance with language rules and new developments.
A scientific term should preferably be flexible to inflect and derive:
أتمتة / كمبيوتر / بنك

22. Other features:
accessibility, agreeability, vividness,
modernity,
non-locality, normality, non-strangeness.

23. Etymology and Terminology
Guide to us in word formation and derivation
Micro-/mini- = small
Macro- / mega- = large
Uni- = one
Bi- = two
Multi- =several

24. Standardization of scientific English terms: criteria for making new terms
1) establishment of a specialized organization of the standardization of English terms. British Standards Institution BSI. Responsible for standardizing new English terms introduced into English in the UK. 2) adopting Latin terminology: middle-ground solution to avoid differences, neutralized language, not susceptible to change. 3) borrowing unconditionally and unashamedly form other languages. 4) the use of Latin or Greek and other prefixes and suffixes to form new words: p ) the use of blends (e.g., Pan-American, motel), p. 72

25. Arabic terminology
The history of Arabic terminology dates back to the early days of Islam. Qur’an and Prophet’s sayings were the springboard for the development of the Arabic language in every aspect.
Classification of terms.
According to form
Derivational terms: تسخين، تحليل، تقطير
Inanimate or fossilized terms: نحاس، حجر، علف، ألمونيوم
Acronyms: لو = ألمونيوم
Compounds: شبه فلزات
According to meaning:
Literal: فضة، مواد كيماوية
Figurative:تضخم مالي
According to correspondence of sound and meaning صليل، خرير

26. Classical Arabic terminology
Islamic terms حج صوم صلاة قرآن
Accepted and treated carefully.
Translation of scientific terms: derivational molds based on roots. P. 73