1. Biodiversity
Chapter 13

2. Outline:
Biodiversity and Species Definitions
Benefits of Biodiversity
Threats to Biodiversity
Human Caused Reductions
Biodiversity Protection
ESA
Minimum Viable Populations
CITES
Captive Breeding

3. BIODIVERSITY AND SPECIES
Biodiversity Types:
Genetic Diversity - Measures variety of different versions of same genes.
Species Diversity - Measures number of different kinds of organisms within a community.
Ecological Diversity - Measures richness and complexity of a community.

4. What Are Species
Species - Organisms of the same kind that are able to breed in nature and produce fertile offspring.
Underlying idea is that reproductive isolation prevents gene exchange and gives rise to new species.
Hybridization creates a dilemma.
Species identification often based on morphological characteristics.
DNA sequencing

5. How Many Species
Currently 1.4 million species identified.
Estimates range between 3-50 million.
May be 30 million insect species.
May be 10 million species on ocean floor.
Invertebrates make up 70% of all known species, and probably most of yet to be discovered species.
Tropical rainforests and coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots.
NA and Europe only contain 10-15%.

6. BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY
Food
As many as 80,000 edible wild plant species could be utilized by humans.
Drugs and Medicines
More than half of all prescriptions contain some natural product.
Pharmaceutical companies actively prospect tropical countries for products.

7. Benefits of Biodiversity
Ecological Benefits
Soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, solar energy absorption, and biogeochemical and hydrological cycles all depend on biodiversity.
Can a system function without all its integral parts ?

8. Benefits of Biodiversity
Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits
Cultural diversity inextricably linked to biodiversity.
USFWS estimates Americans spend $104 billion annually on wildlife-related recreation.
Ecotourism can be an important form of sustainable economic development.
Existence (intrinsic) value.

9. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Extinction - Elimination of a species.
Normal process
In undisturbed ecosystems, background rate appears to be one species per decade.
In this century, human impacts have accelerated that rate, causing perhaps hundreds to thousands of extinctions annually.

10. Natural Causes of Extinction
Fossil Record suggests more than 99% of all species ever in existence are now extinct.
Most went extinct before humans arrived.
End of Cretaceous - Dinosaurs and 50% of existing genera disappeared.
Permian period - Two-thirds of all marine species and nearly half of all plant and animal families died out.

11. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
Habitat Destruction
Biggest reason for current increase in extinction is habitat loss.
Habitat fragmentation divides populations into isolated groups vulnerable to catastrophic events.
Hunting and Fishing
Over-harvesting of game species.
American Passenger Pigeon
Whales

12. Habitat Fragmentation - Cadiz Township, WI

13. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
Commercial Products and Live Specimens
Wildlife smuggling is very profitable.
Leopard fur / Rhinoceros horns
US Annual pet trade in wild species:
2 million reptiles
1 million amphibians and mammals
500,000 birds
128,000 tropical fish (often caught with cyanide above coral reefs)

14. Predator and Pest Control
Many animal populations have been greatly reduced or exterminated because they are regarded as dangerous to humans or livestock.
Animal control costs $20 million in federal and state funds annually.
700,000 birds and mammals annually.
100,000 coyotes

15. Predator and Pest Control
Exotic Species Introductions
Exotic organisms - Organisms introduced into habitats where they are not native.
Biological Pollution
Kudzu Vine
Purple Loosestrife
Zebra Mussels
Asian Long-Horned Beetles

16. Predator and Pest Control
Diseases
When a disease is introduced into a new environment, natural balance may be tipped, leading to an epidemic.
Pollution
Toxic Pollutants
Pesticides
Lead
Genetic Assimilation

17. BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION
Hunting and Fishing Laws
By 1890’s, most states had enacted some hunting and fishing laws.
General idea was pragmatic, not aesthetic or moral preservation.

18. Endangered Species Act
Established in 1973.
Endangered are those considered in imminent danger of extinction.
Threatened are those likely to become endangered, at least locally, in the near future.
Vulnerable are those that are naturally rare or have been locally depleted to a level that puts them at risk.

19. Endangered Species Act
ESA regulates a wide range of activities involving Endangered Species:
Taking (harassing, harming, pursuing, hunting, shooting, killing, capturing, or collecting) either accidentally, or on purpose.
Selling
Importing into or Exporting out of the US
Possessing
Transporting or Shipping

20. Endangered Species Act
Currently, US has 1,500 species on its Endangered and Threatened lists, and about 500 candidate species waiting for consideration.
Number reflects more about human interests than actual status.
Invertebrates make up 75% of all species, but only 9% of T/E list.
Listing process is extremely slow.

21. Recovery Plans
Once a species is listed, USFWS is required to propose a recovery plan detailing the rebuilding of the species to sustainable levels.
Total cost of all current plans = $5 billion.
Opponents have continually tried to require economic costs and benefits be incorporated into planning.

22. Private Land and Critical Habitat
Eighty percent of habitat for more than half of all listed species is on non-public property.
Supreme Court has ruled destroying habitat equates to taking.
USFWS has been negotiating Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP) with private landowners.
Landowners allowed to harvest resources as long as species benefit.

23. Reauthorizing ESA
ESA officially expired in 1992.
Proposals for new ESA generally fall into two general categories:
Versions that encourage ecosystem and habitat protection rather than individual species.
Safe Harbor policies that allow exceptions to critical habitat designations.
(Economic Considerations)

24. Minimum Viable Populations
Minimum Viable Population is the minimum population size required for long-term viability of a species.
Island biogeography - Small islands far from a mainland have fewer terrestrial species than larger, closer islands.
MacArthur and Wilson proposed that species diversity is a balance between colonization and extinction rates.

25. Minimum Viable Populations
Diversity Loss in Small Populations:
Founder Effect
Few individuals start a new population.
Demographic Bottleneck
Few individuals survive catastrophe.
Genetic Drift
Random reduction in gene frequency.
Inbreeding
Mating between related individuals.

26. Habitat Protection
Latest management strategy is preservation of ecosystems supporting maximum biological diversity rather than species-by-species approach.
Gap Analysis - Conservationists and wildlife managers look for unprotected landscapes that are rich in species.
Broad-scale, holistic approach.

27. Biodiversity Map

28. International Wildlife Treaties
Convention on International Trade In Endangered Species (CITES)
Regulated trade in living specimens and products derived from listed species.

29. CAPTIVE BREEDING
Breeding programs in zoos and botanical gardens are one method of saving threatened species.
Repositories of genetic diversity.
Most mammals in NA zoos are now produced from captive-breeding programs.
Some zoos now participating in reintroduction programs.

30. Captive Breeding
Zoos have limited space for captive breeding.
How many can / should we save ?
Ultimate problem is that natural habitat may disappear while we are conserving the species itself.
Another alternative is to attempt to save species in the wild.
Provide funding for protection in native habitats.

31. Summary:
Biodiversity and Species Definitions
Benefits of Biodiversity
Threats to Biodiversity
Human Caused Reductions
Biodiversity Protection
ESA
Minimum Viable Populations
CITES
Captive Breeding