1. Cultural Anthropology
Theories, Perspectives, and Methodologies

2. What is Anthropology?
Scientific study of the origin, behavior, and the physical, social and cultural development of humans
Study of humankind and the dynamic interrelationships of all aspects of human existence
Separated into 4 disciplines that are interconnected:
Archaeological
Biological/physical
Linguistic
Sociocultural

3. Cultural Anthropology
Study past and present cultures
Ask questions such as:
Why is there social and political inequality?
How does language affect and express culture?
3 different fields of Cultural Anthropology
Ethnology
Linguistic
Archaeology

4. Schools of Thought/Theories
Cultural anthropologists develop theories to better understand the cultures they are studying and to help make sense of the data they are gathering.
Some of the Perspectives and Theories we will be covering:
Social evolutionism
Historicism
Cultural Relativism
Functionalism
Structuralism
Cultural Materialism
Feminist theory
Social exchange theory and social learning theory
Conflict theory or Marxism
Post Modernism

5. Social Evolutionism

6. Social Evolutionism
Also called “Unilineal evolution” or “Cultural Evolution”
Idea that cultures evolve in a progressive manner, from simple to complex
By the mid 1850s, Europe had explored, conquered and
colonized many parts of the globe, encountering a
variation of cultures with different lifestyles
Colonization led to the unveiling of an array of different
lifestyles than Europeans
Early social theories are an attempt to explain those
differences and in some cases, justify discrimination,
colonization & slavery
First systematic ethnological theory
(Long and Chokov)

7. Edward B. Tylor
( )

8. Social Evolutionism Edward B. Tylor
Disagreed with many early 19th century writers that saw indigenous people as examples of cultural degeneration.
He believed that people in different locations were equally capable of developing and progressing through stages – People could only move forward, not backwards.
Primitive groups “reached their position by learning and not by unlearning.” (Tylor 2006)
Agreed with Montesquieu that development had three stages:
Savagery
Barbarism
Civilization
(Long and Chokov)

9. Social Evolutionism Edward B. Tylor
Tylor and other early evolutionists determined that different societies at different stages of evolution
“Simpler” people hadn’t reached “higher stage” of culture
Simpler societies resembled ancient societies
In advanced societies, one could see proof of cultural evolution through “Survivals” – traces of earlier customs that survive in present day cultures (e.g. making of pottery – back then, made out of clay; today, make out of metal because more durable but still prefer dishes made out of clay)
(Long and Chokov)

10. Lewis Henry Morgan
( )

11. Social Evolutionism Lewis Henry Morgan
Called the Iroquois “noble savages” – a lawyer who defended their reserves in a land-grant case
Ancient Society
Divided evolution of human culture into same three stages but subdivided savagery and barbarism into further categories: upper, middle, and lower
Each stage was distinguished by technological development and had a correlate in patterns of subsistence, marriage, family and political organization.
(Long and Chokov)

12. Social Evolutionism Lewis Henry Morgan
Distinguished stages of development in terms of technological achievement, and each had its own symbol
Savagery
Middle savagery: fish diet and discovery of fire
Upper savagery: bow and arrow
Barbarism
Lower barbarism: pottery
Middle barbarism: animal domestication and irrigated agriculture
Upper barbarism: manufacture of iron
Civilization – alphabet
(Long and Chokov)

13. Social Evolutionism Lewis Henry Morgan
Speculated that each stage associated with sequence of different cultural patterns
Ex. Family evolved through six stages
Established kinship and marriage as central areas of anthropological inquiry
Believed that family units became smaller and more self-contained as society developed
1: Began as a “horde living in promiscuity” with no sexual prohibitions and no real family structure
2: group of brothers married to group of sisters (was permitted)
3: group marriage practiced but family not allowed to mate
4: evolved during barbarianism; loosely paired male and female who lived with other people
5: husband dominant family arose which husband could practice polygamy
6: Civilization: monogamous family
(Long and Chokov)

14. Philosophy Behind Social Evolutionism
Psychic unity: Unity among all peoples that explained parallel evolutionary sequences in different cultural traditions.
People have similar mental frameworks that allow them to find the same solutions to the same problems independently
Simple Diffusion: cultural traits spread from one society to another
Occurs because of contact between two cultures
Superiority of Western Cultures: rooted in European colonialism and based on fact that Western societies were more technologically superior and sophisticated; belief that Christianity was the true religion
(Long and Chokov)

15. Social Evolutionism Criticism
Contemporary anthropologists believe that too simplistic to explain development of societies
Relied on racist views of human development that were popular
E.g. Morgan and Tylor believed that people had different level of intelligence (of different races and nationalities) which led to societal differences
(Long and Chokov)

16. Works Cited
Long, Heather and Chokov, Kelly. “Social Evolutionism.” Alabama University Department of Anthropology, Accessed on Oct. 22,