1. Hydrology CIVL341 Introduction

2. History of Hydrology Definition: Hydrology Means the science of water
Hydrology is a multidisciplinary natural science that deals with the occurrence, properties, distribution and movement of surface and ground – water on the earth (in the natural and man-made environments).

3. History of Hydrology in general hydrology deals with:
The study of processes such as precipitation and their interaction
the study of problems such as floods and droughts and strategies to combat them.

4. Applications of Hydrology
Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation;
Designing sewers and urban drainage system;
Designing bridges;
Mitigating and predicting flood, landslide and drought risk;
Providing drinking water;
Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity;
Determining the water balance of a region.

5. Dam

6. Hydrological Data Sources
Data normally required in the hydrological studies are: 1- Weather record – temp., humidity, and wind velocity 2- Stream flow records 3- Infiltration characteristics of the study area 4- Soils of the area 5- Land use and land cover 6- Ground water characteristics 7- Water quality data

7. Hydrologic Cycle

8. The various aspects of water related to the earth can be explained in terms of a cycle known as the hydrologic cycle. Key hydrological cycle processes : a- Evaporation due to the heat energy provided by solar radiation. b- Water vapor moves upward and forms clouds. c- Clouds condense and fall back to the oceans as a rain d- Part of cloud is driven to the land e- Cloud condense and precipitate to the land as a rain f- Part of the precipitation may evaporate back to the atmosphere.

9. g- Another part of the precipitation may be intercepted by vegetation
g- Another part of the precipitation may be intercepted by vegetation. h- The remaining part may be evaporate it back to the atmosphere or move down to the ground surface. i- A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earths surface through infiltration, enhancing the moisture content of the soil. J- Vegetation sends a portion of the water from under the ground surface back to the atmosphere through the process of transpiration. K- Portion of the precipitation by different paths above and below the surface of the earth reaches the stream channel is called runoff

10. Once it enters the stream channel , runoff becomes stream flow.

12. Water Budget Catchment Area : area of land draining into a stream at a given location. Its known also as a drainage area or drainage basin. In US called watershed.

13. The water balance equation for a catchment:
P-R-G-E-T=∆S Or
P-R-G-ET=∆S

14. Where: P: precipitation R: river or surface runoff G: groundwater runoff ( net groundwater flow out of the catchment) E: evaporation T: transpiration ET: evapotranspiration ∆S: storage change in a catchment

15. The storage S consists of three components as: S= Sc+Ssm+Sg Where : Sc: surface water storage Ssm: water in storage as soil moisture Sg: water in storage as groundwater

16. Thus ∆S equal to : ∆S = ∆Sc+ ∆Ssm+ ∆Sg In terms of rainfall- runoff relationship R=P-L Where : L= losses = water not available to runoff due to infiltration (causing addition to soil moisture and ground water storage), evaporation, transpiration and surface storage. Runoff coefficient = R/P The catchment for an interval time ∆t Mass inflow – Mass outflow= ∆S

17. Ex1 : The volume of atmospheric water is 12,900 km3
Ex1 : The volume of atmospheric water is 12,900 km3. The evapotranspiration from land is 72,000 km3/year and that from ocean is 505,000 km3/year. Estimate the residence time of water molecules in the atmosphere (in days).

18. Ex 2: A reservoir has the following inflows and outflows (in cubic meters) for the first three months of the year. If the storage at the beginning of January is 60m3, determine the storage at the end of March.

19. The volume of ocean water is 1338x106 km3. The runoff from rivers is 44.7 x103 km3/year and the runoff from groundwater is 2.2 x103 km3/year. The precipitation on the ocean is 1270 mm /year (The ocean area is x 106 km2). Estimate the residence time of water molecules in the ocean (in years).

20. The average annual precipitation in England and Wales is 926. 9 mm
The average annual precipitation in England and Wales is mm. A person consumes 150 litres of water every day (include agriculture, industry, trade,). With a population of 53,390,300 in the region and an area of 1.51x1011 square meters, what percentage of the precipitation is used by humans?

21. Ex 3: A lake had a water surface elevation of 103
Ex 3: A lake had a water surface elevation of m above datum at the beginning of a certain month. In that month the lake received an average inflow of 6.0 m3/s from surface runoff sources. In the same period the outflow from the lake had an average value of 6.5 m3/s. Further, in that month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write the water budget equation for the lake and calculate the water surface elevation of the lake at the end of the month. The average lake surface area can be taken as 5000 ha and assume that there is no contribution to or from the ground water storage

22. Ex 4: A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10
Ex 4: A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm in 90 minutes due to a storm. At the of the catchment, the stream draining the catchment was dry before the storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hours with an average discharge of 1.5 m3/s. The stream was again dry after the runoff event. (a) what is the amount of water which was not available to runoff due to combined effect of infiltration, evaporation and transpiration? (b) What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?

23. Ex 5: A river reach had a flood wave passing through it
Ex 5: A river reach had a flood wave passing through it. At a given instant the storage of water in reach was estimated as 15.5 ha.m. what would be the storage in the reach after interval of 3 hours if the average inflow and outflow during the time period are 14.2 m3/s and 10.6 m3/s respectively?

24. A catchment with an area of hectares, due to the combined effects of evapotranspiration and infiltration to groundwater some losses for water storage will occurred. The annual amount of water lost is 2.5 x 109 m3. The average flow rate measured in the river draining the catchment was 35 m3/s. Estimate the annual amount of water that will precipitate on that area and calculate the runoff coefficient.

25. Precipitation

26. Forms of Precipitation
Precipitation is all forms of water that reach the earth from atmosphere Common forms of precipitation are: Rain : the term rainfall is used to describe precipitations in the forms of water drops of sizes larger than 0.5 mm. Snow : another important form of precipitation . It consists of ice crystals which usually combine to form flakes.

27. Forms of Precipitation
Drizzle : fine water droplets of size less than 0.5 mm. the drops are so small that they appear to float in the air. Glaze : when rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground at around 00 C, the water drops freeze to form an ice coating called glaze or freezing rain. Hail : it is showery precipitation in the form of irrigular lumps of ice of size more than 8 mm. occurred in violent thunderstorms.

29. Why do we need to measure rainfall?
Rainfall Measurement
Why do we need to measure rainfall?
Engineers - to design structures for runoff control i.e. storm-water drains, bridges etc.

30. What if you need to know the rainfall in a catchment?
Measure it yourself….
Type of rain gauges?
Where to put gauges?
How many gauges?
How do you map it?

31. Methods of Measuring Rainfall: Manual
Often have a funnel opening into a cylinder gauge.
Come in a variety of shapes and sizes
Calculate the rainfall (in mm) by dividing the volume of water collected by the area of the opening of the cup. (The gauge marking often accounts for this).

32. Methods of Measuring Rainfall: Remote
Tipping bucket rain gauge -The bucket tips when precipitation of 0.2 mm, 0.5 mm, 1.0 mm has been collected. Each tip is recorded by a data logger.
Weather Station - Records rainfall, but also evaporation, air pressure, air temperature, wind speed and wind direction (so can be used to estimate evapo-transpiration)
Radar - Ground-based radar equipment can be used to determine how much rain is falling and where it is the heaviest.

33. Number and Distribution of Gauges
Need to consider:
size of area
prevailing storm type
form of precipitation
topography
aspect
season

34. Distribution of Gauges
The distribution of gauges should not be random.
only fixed characteristics of areas can be sampled randomly. Random events must be sampled by a systematic arrangement of sampling points
Practical considerations of access and exposure mean that some pragmatism is required in designing a network.
It is useful to locate gauges so that isohyetal maps can be drawn. Some gauges need to be near, or outside the catchment boundary in order to cover the catchment completely.

35. Number of Gauges Depends on Storm type
Cyclonic storms (large areas, low intensities) -small number of gauges may be O.K.
Convective storms (local, intense, uneven distribution) -denser network needed. Convective storms may have seasonal dominance -need to consider this as well.
Orographic rainfall due to mountains (not fronts) -may need denser network than flatter area.