1. GENETICS

2. GENETICS
Knowledge of genetics is fundamental in understanding biology and essential for understanding many of the most important public issues that we face in today’s world.

3. GENES
1865- Gregor Mendel studied inheritance patterns using pea plants and observed traits were inherited as separate units.
These traits are now known as genes!
He founded Modern Genetics- the function and behavior of genes.
Genes are bits of biochemical information carried through generations by molecules called DNA.

4. What is DNA, you ask ? DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
One of several types of nucleic acid found in cells.
Double-stranded form usually forms a double helix.
Genes exist as segments along the DNA molecule.
The DNA that carries the genetic information in cells is packaged in one or more larger molecules called chromosomes.

5. What are CHROMOSOMES ?
Chromosomes are long, continuous pieces of DNA that contain many genes.

6. Genes are blueprints or bits of biochemical information that direct the synthesis (making) of proteins that carry out the life-supporting activities of the cell.
All humans share the same set of genes, but can inherit different forms of a given gene from their parents, making each individual unique,( except for identical twins whose genes are exactly the same).

7. Why are Genes inportant ?
Again,Knowledge of genetics is fundamental to understanding biology and many of the public issues we face today.
Issues: UV rays, food additives, agricultural chemicals, carcinogens (cancer causing agents) from the enviroment, asbestos, cigarette smoke, high-energy radiation (x-rays), cloning, use of stem cells and gene therapy, genetic testing for diseases and privacy issues.

8. Why are genes important, cont'd.
HIV/AIDS, one of the most frightening health risks of our time, can only be understood and controlled through the application (use) of techniques and insights from molecular genetics.
Biotechnology based on molecular genetics is offering solutions, but have the potential to becoming new problems.
Ex: GMO’s, processed foods, technology that sustains life (gene therapy, pharmacogenomics (precision medicine)

9. Scientists who study genes and their variations (differences).
GENETICISTS
Scientists who study genes and their variations (differences).

10. Genetic mapping
Scientist create “maps” that chart the position of known genes and other “markers” relative to each other, rather than specific point on a chromosome.
Using genetic engineering, researchers are mapping the genomes (the whole organisms DNA)

11. Technique used by scientists to manipulate (change) genes.
Genetic Engineering
Technique used by scientists to manipulate (change) genes.
Has produced many advances in science but with that comes ethical issues!

12. Gene Mapping and The Human Genome Project
Genetic mapping charts the position of known genes relative to each other.
The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003.
The project produced detailed maps that identify the chromosomal locations of the estimated 20-25,000 human genes.
The purpose of this project was to examine how gene activity can cause disease.

13. Genotype-combination of genes that code for a trait.
Terminology
Genotype-combination of genes that code for a trait.
Phenotype- the physical manifestation of a trait.

14. Alleles
When one gene is dominant over its alternate gene occupying its position on a chromosome.

15. DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS
Incomplete Dominance- the inheritance of a dominant and recessive allele results in a blending of traits to produce intermediate characteristics.
Quantitative Inheritance- each pair of genes has only a slight effect on the trait while the cumulative effect of all the genes determines the physical characteristics of the trait.

16. Multiple Alleles- certain traits are controlled by multiple alleles that have complex rules of dominance.
Gene Linkage- when genes affecting the phenotypes are found on different chromosomes.
Crossing over- when a chromosome pair may intertwine and exchange sections of chromosome, then break apart to form two chromosomes with a new combination of genes that differs form the combination supplied by the parents.

17. Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis is the process, in the cell cycle, by which the chromosomes in the cell nucleus (brain of the cell) are separated into two identical sets of chromosomes, each in its own nucleus.
Meiosis-is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual reproduction which occurs or has occurred in all eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi, including both multi-celled and single-celled organisms. The number of sets of chromosomes in the cell undergoing meiosis is reduced to half the original number. Creates uniqueness of the organism.

18. RECOMBINATION/ SEX-LINKED TRAITS
R- How often genes on a chromosome measures the distance between them.
S- One pair of chromosomes in which the partners noticeably differ from each other.
Sex chromosomes determine the difference between males and females.
Genes located on sex chromosomes display different patterns of inheritance than genes located on other chromosomes.

19. The 4 Bases for DNA Adeneine(A), Thymine(T), Cytosine(C), Guanine (G)
How do these chemicals ALWAYS line up?
A-G T-C

20. SL Traits cont'd.
In females, the sex chromosome consists of two X chromosomes, while males have a X and a shorter Y, with many fewer genes.

21. GENETIC CODES/ NUCLEOTIDES
GC- Biochemical instructions within most genes that specify the chemical structure of a particular protein.
N- Chains of building blocks formed by DNA molecules.
DNA molecules consist of:
a sugar molecule, (deoxyribose), a phosphate group and one of four bases: Adeneine(A), Thymine(T), Cytosine(C), and Guanine (G).
The order of the bases in a DNA molecule, (genetic code), determines the amino acid sequence of a protein.

22. TRANSCRIPTION/RNA/MESSENGER RNA
T- DNA goes through a process to an intermediary molecule (RNA). It involves the production of a special kind of RNA,
Messenger RNA, where the DNA molecule unwinds and is used to create messenger RNA.

23. TRANSLATION
Once transcription is complete, and the genetic code has been copied onto mRNA, the genetic code must be converted into the language of proteins. The information coded in the four bases in mRNA must be translated into instructions encoded by the 20 amino acids used in the formation of proteins.
Translation takes place in cellular organelles called ribosomes.

24. Mutations/ Gene Regulation
M- “Mistakes” (abnormal changes) that occur during DNA replication and protein synthesis.
Some mutations occur spontaneously, others are caused by environmental exposures. (sun, pollution, chemicals) May be referred to as “Mutagens” or “Carcinogens”
GR- The process enabling information to be copied from genes and used to synthesize proteins must be regulated for the cell to survive.

25. Genetic Engineering/ Recombinant DNA Gene Therapy/ Proteonomics
GE- The alteration of genes in an organism.
RDNA-one or more genes of an organism are introduced into a second organism.
GT- The insertion of one or more genes into an individual to treat disease, especially inherited(genetic) diseases.
P- A “new science” in which researchers are identifying the structure and function of all proteins in the human body. Used to develop breakthrough drugs for genetic disorders

26. Gametes/ Eugenics
Gametes are the egg (ova) and sperm (spermatazoa) cells involved in reproduction.
Eugenics is the study of hereditary involvement of the human race by selective breeding. Encourages people with “positive” genes to reproduce, while discouraging people with “inferior” genes to reproduce.

27. Gene Therapy
The insertion of one or more genes into an individual to treat a disease, especially inherited (genetic) diseases.
Researchers have replaced defective genes with normal “alleles”, inactivated a mutated gene or inserted a normal form of a gene into a chromosome.
It must be delivered by a carrier, know as a “Vector”, usually a virus of some type.

28. An example of gene therapy:
“Bubble boy disease”- where the child is born w/o an enzyme that works in our immune system. The child has NO DEFENSES against microorganisms in our environment.
Stem cells are extracted from the bone marrow & grown in the lab. They are then exposed to the Vector carrying the gene. The cells enter the DNA of the cells. The virus continues to grow in the cells in the lab. Eventually the cells are given back to the patient through an IV.