1. Chapter 8
Inductive Reasoning

2. Statistical Syllogism
An inductive argument pattern in which the inference goes from a statement about a group of things to a conclusion about a single member of that group.
Almost all of the students attending this college are pacifists.
Wei-en attends this college.
Therefore, Wei-en is probably a pacifist.

3. Enumerative Induction
An inductive argument pattern in which we reason from premises about individual members of a group to conclusions about the group as a whole.
X percent of the observed members of group A have property P.
Therefore, X percent of all members of group A probably have property P.

4. Terms
Target group (or target population)—In enumerative induction, the whole collection of individuals under study.
Sample (or sample member)—In enumerative induction, the observed members of the target group.
Relevant property (or property in question)—In enumerative induction, a property, or characteristic, that is of interest in the target group.

5. Terms
Hasty generalization—The fallacy of drawing a conclusion about a target group based on an inadequate sample size.
Biased sample—A sample that does not properly represent the target group.
Representative sample—In enumerative induction, a sample that resembles the target group in all relevant ways.

6. Terms
Random sample—A sample that is selected randomly from a target group in such a way as to ensure that the sample is representative. In a simple random selection, every member of the target group has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
Confidence level—In statistical theory, the probability that the sample will accurately represent the target group within the margin of error.
Margin of error—The variation between the values derived from a sample and the true values of the whole target group.

7. Argument by Analogy
Argument by analogy (also, analogical induction)—An argument making use of analogy, reasoning that because two or more things are similar in several respects, they must be similar in some further respect.
Thing A has properties P1, P2, P3, plus the property P4.
Thing B has properties P1, P2, and P3.
Therefore, thing B probably has property P4.

8. Criteria for Judging Arguments by Analogy
1. The number of relevant similarities
2. The number of relevant dissimilarities
3. The number of instances compared
4. The diversity among cases

9. Causal Confusions Misidentifying relevant factors
Overlooking relevant factors
Confusing coincidence with cause
Confusing cause with temporal order (post hoc fallacy)
Confusing cause and effect

10. Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
A necessary condition for the occurrence of an event is one without which the event cannot occur.
A sufficient condition for the occurrence of an event is one that guarantees that the event occurs.