1. MOTIVATION
The psychological process that directs and maintains behavior toward a goal, fueled by motives---needs or desires that energize behavior

2. Instincts: complex, inherited behavior patterns characteristic of a species---must be stereotypical, automatically performed in the same way by all members of a species in response to a specific stimulus
Konrad Lorenz: geese; studied imprinting---attachment formed to the first moving object they see or hear soon after birth by following that object
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

3. DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY
Clark Hull
Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce drives, such as hunger, thirst, or sex
Need: motivated state caused by a physiological deficit
Need activates a Drive: state of psychological tension induced by a need
Used to maintain Homeostasis: balance
DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY

4. Incentive: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
They “pull” us toward a goal
INCENTIVE THEORY

5. Arousal: the level of alertness, wakefulness, and attention caused by activity in the central nervous system
Yerkes-Dodson Law: we usually perform most activities best when moderately aroused, and efficiency of performance is usually lower when arousal is either too low or too high
AROUSAL THEORY

6. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Abraham Maslow
We need to satisfy basic biological needs first, then satisfy needs for security in a world that is organized and predictable
Self-actualization: achievement of all of our potentials
Scientific evidence does NOT support this idea
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

7. HUNGER Hypothalamus regulates hunger
Lateral hypothalamus (LH): “on” button for hunger
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): “off” button for hunger
Environmental cues as well
HUNGER

8. HUNGER Twin studies show possible genetic predisposition to obesity
Set point: preset natural body weight
Anorexia nervosa: weighing less than 85% of normal body weight; still afraid of being fat
Bulimia nervosa: more common than anorexia; binging on food and purging by vomiting or use of laxatives
HUNGER

9. THIRST Similar to regulation of hunger
Based mostly on fluid content and volume of blood
Osmoreceptors are sensitive to dehydration of cells
Hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)---this promotes reabsorption of water in the kidneys
THIRST

10. Sexual motivation in humans is related to testosterone levels (in both sexes)
Sexual orientation: direction of an individual’s sexual interest
Sexual response cycle: excitement (arousal); plateau (increased breathing and heart rate); orgasm; resolution/refractory period
SEX

11. AND NOW FOR THE NON-PHYSICAL…

12. A desire to meet some internalized standard of excellence
David McClelland measured achievement motive through the Thematic Aptitude Test (TAT)
People with a high achievement motive seek moderately challenging tasks---don’t want anything that is too easy
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE

13. The need to be with others
AFFILIATION MOTIVE

14. INTRINSIC VS. EXTRINSIC
Intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform an activity for its own sake rather than an external reward
Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform an activity to obtain a reward from outside the individual
Overjustification effect: when extrinsic motivation takes over for an intrinsic motivation
INTRINSIC VS. EXTRINSIC

15. SOCIAL CONFLICT SITUATIONS
Conflict: being torn in different directions by opposing motives that block us from attaining a goal
Approach-Approach conflicts: least stressful; two positive options, you can only choose one
Avoidance-Avoidance conflicts: 2 negative options, one of which you must choose
Approach-Avoidance conflicts: situations involving whether or not to choose an option that has both a positive and negative consequence or consequences
Multiple Approach-Avoidance conflict: most complex; situations involving several alternative courses of action that have both positive and negative aspects
SOCIAL CONFLICT SITUATIONS

16. Def: a conscious feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness accompanied by biological activation and expressive behavior; has cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components
Frontal lobes control and interpret emotions
Left hemisphere: positive emotions
Right hemisphere: negative emotions
EMOTION

17. JAMES-LANGE THEORY William James and Karl Lange
Physiological arousal leads to our conscious experience of emotion
JAMES-LANGE THEORY

18. OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY
Following a strong emotion, an opposing emotion counters the first emotion, lessening the experience of that emotion; on repeated occasions, the opposing emotion becomes stronger
OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY

19. SCHACHTER TWO-FACTOR THEORY
We determine an emotion from physiological arousal, then label that emotion according to our cognitive explanation for the arousal
SCHACHTER TWO-FACTOR THEORY

20. STRESS AND COPING

21. Conflict: being torn in different directions by opposing motives that block us from attaining a goal
Approach-Approach conflicts: least stressful; two positive options, you can only choose one
Avoidance-Avoidance conflicts: 2 negative options, one of which you must choose
Approach-Avoidance conflicts: situations involving whether or not to choose an option that has both a positive and negative consequence or consequences
Multiple Approach-Avoidance conflict: most complex; situations involving several alternative courses of action that have both positive and negative aspects

22. GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
Hans Selye
Stress: process by which we appraise and respond to environmental threats
Stressors: stimuli that we perceive as endangering our well-being
3 Stages of GAS:
Alarm: sympathetic NS activity increases; prepare for fight or flight
Resistance: continued stress in this stage can result in decreased immunity to certain diseases
Exhaustion: may result in illnesses like ulcers, depression, or even death
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

23. Catastrophes: stressors that are unpredictable, large-scale disasters which threaten us
Death of a loved one, marriage, divorce, change job, moving, etc…
Daily hassles: everyday annoyances
STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS

24. Type A personality: high achievers, competitive, impatient, multi-taskers
Type B personality: relaxed, calm in approach to life
Type A more likely to develop health problems
STRESS AND HEALTH

25. Can be adaptive (remove or tolerate) or maladaptive (substituting one stressor for another---can include defense mechanisms)
Health psychs suggest relaxation, visualization, meditation, and biofeedback to lessen effects of stress and boost immune system
COPING STRATEGIES