1. Amphibians and Reptiles: An Introduction to Herpetofauna
Edited for Virginia by Mike Clifford, Virginia Herpetological Society
Photos by Pierson Hill and Aubrey Heupel
Eastern Hognose Snake
Green Treefrog

2. Amphibians and Reptiles
Ectothermic
Use outside energy sources to maintain body temperature for metabolism and regulatory functions
Cryptic
Very difficult to detect even though they can be highly abundant
Fence Lizard
River Cooters Northern Watersnake
Timber Rattlesnake
Photos by J.D. Willson, Kristen Cecala, Wayne Van Devender, and M.E. Dorcas
River Cooters, Fence Lizard, Northern Watersnake, Timber Rattlesnake (Canebrake), Timber Rattlesnake (Canebrake), Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake
Timber Rattlesnake
Queen Snake

3. Tetrapods Snakes have evolutionarily lost their legs
Humans evolved from one of the same ancestors of extant reptiles
Non-Tetrapod Vertebrates
Frogs
Salamanders
Caecilians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
Photo by Eric Stine
Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake
Extant = currently living species, not extinct
Rainbow Snake
Adapted from the WhoZoo

4. Amphibians and Reptiles
Very important to the ecosystem
Prey and Predator
Prey item for animals including raccoons, opossums, and birds
Prey upon insects, mice, and rats
Bio-indicator
An animal that can indicate the health of an environment by its population structure and abundance
Green Salamander
Ringneck Snake
Spring Salamander
Photos by Kristen Cecala (stream) and J.D. Willson (all others)
Green Salamander, Spring Salamander, Ringneck Snake, Eastern Spadefoot, Green Anole
Eastern Spadefood Toad
Eastern Spiny Softshell Turtle

5. Amphibians 78 Species in Virginia (51 salamanders & 27 frogs & toads)
SE U.S. - greatest salamander diversity in the world!
Huge Biomass
Biomass: Total weight of all amphibians in an area
One isolated wetland produced 3 tons of amphibians
Spotted Salamander
Photos by J. D. Willson
Spotted Salamander, Three-Lined Salamander, Southern Leopard Frog
Three-Lined Salamander
Southern Leopard Frog

6. Amphibian Characteristics
Permeable skin
Permeable: Allows the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide to allow respiration
Can allow the uptake of chemicals in the environment
Good olfaction
Olfaction: Sense of smell
Prey upon:
Insects, other amphibians, anything small enough to fit into their mouths, even mice
Green Frog
Spring Salamander
Green Frog (Photo by J.D. Willson), Spring Salamander (Photo by K. Cecala)

7. Frogs Tadpoles lose tails and grow legs as they metamorphose
True Frogs
Rana
Tree Frogs
Hyla
Toe pads
Grey Tree Frog
Southern Leopard Frog
Bull Frog
All Photos by J. D. Willson
Southern Leopard Frog, Bullfrog, Grey Tree Frog, Spring Peeper, Green Treefrog, Upland Chorus Frog
Spring Peeper
Upland Chorus Frog
Green Tree Frog

8. Toads
Fowler’s Toad
Similar to frogs
Tadpoles lose tail and grow legs as they metamorphose into adults
Less dependent upon water than frogs
Have warty skin
Paratoid Glands:
Glands behind the eye that secrete toxin
American Toad
Photos by J. D. Willson
American Toad, Fowler’s Toad

9. Salamanders Plethodontids: No lungs Ambystomatids: Lungs Hellbenders
Obligate, aerobic respiration through the skin
Ambystomatids: Lungs
Facultative, aerobic respiration through the skin
Hellbenders
Grow to 2 feet in the USA, but up to 5 feet in Japan
Hidden gills
Spring Salamander
Photos by Kristen Cecala
Spring Salamander, Marbled Salamander, hellbender
Obligate – only way possible
Facultative – possible, but not obligate
Marbled Salamander
Photo by Kristen Cecala
Hellbender

10. Amphibian Breeding Locations
Spring Salamander Larva
Streams
Adults utilize upland habitat for feeding
Use stream for breeding, larval period, and occasional foraging
Wetlands
Adults live and feed in upland habitat
Return to wetlands to breed and undergo larval periods
Terrestrial
Adults never require water for reproduction
No larval stage
Utilize moisture under logs and leaf litter
Spring Salamander Larva (Photo Pierson Hill), Wetland (Photo by A. Mercadante) Redback Salamander (2 color phases) (Photo by K. Cecala)
Redback Salamander

11. Caecilians Live in the tropics Leg-less and blind
Look very similar to a worm
Photos by Shannon Pittman and J. D. Willson
Caecilians

12. Amphibian Life Cycle
Upland Chorus Frog
Frog eggs
Spring Peeper calling
Cricket Frog
Spring Peeper Tadpole/Metamorph
Pine Woods Tree Frog Tadpole
Frog Eggs (Photo by J.D. Willson) , Pine Woods Tree Frog Tadpole (Photo by JD Willson), Spring Peeper Tadpole/Metamorph (photo by K. Cecala), Cricket Frog (Photo by K. Cecala), Spring Peeper (photo by Aubrey Heupel), Upland Chorus Frog (Photo by JD Willson)

13. Amphibian Defense Mechanisms
American Toad
Green Frog Tadpole
Toxin in skin
Toads and Newts
Producing large numbers of offspring
Producing noisy squawks when attacked
Red-Spotted Newt
Photos by J.D. Willson
American Toad, Red-Spotted Newt, Green Frog Tadpole

14. Reptiles
62 species in Virginia from 3 groups (30 snakes, 10 lizards including one introduced, 22 turtles)
Antarctica the only continent without reptiles
Snakes have no legs, but still tetrapods
Evolutionary loss of legs
Boas still maintain a pelvic girdle
Eastern Painted Turtle (Photo by J.D. Willson), Broadhead Skink (Photo by J.D. Willson), Copperhead (Photo by J. D. Willson
Copperhead
Broadhead Skink
Eastern Painted Turtle

15. Reptiles
First vertebrates to become independent of water for reproduction
Some reptiles have reverted to aquatic lifestyles, but still reproduce without water
Sea Snakes
Snapping Turtle
Sea Turtles
Photo by J.D. Willson
Snapping Turtle.
Snapping Turtle

16. Reptiles Ectothermic Maintain a constant temperature range
Maintained by basking, movement, and shivering
Brummation = hibernation
Yellowbelly Slider
Yellow-bellied Slider

17. Crocodilians
American Alligator – not native to Virginia but is found just to the south in North Carolina
Photo by J. D. Willson
American Alligator
American Alligators

18. Turtles Temperature sex determination Vertebrae integrated into shell
Eastern Painted Turtle
Snapping Turtle
Temperature sex determination
Vertebrae integrated into shell
No teeth: Beak similar to a bird
Omnivorous
3 habitats
Marine
Freshwater
Terrestrial
Eastern Painted Turtle (Photo by J.D. Willson), Loggerhead Sea Turtle (photo by J.D. Willson), Box Turtle (Photo by J.D. Willson), Snapping Turtle (Photo by M.E. Dorcas)
Loggerhead Sea Turtle
Box Turtle

19. Squamata Snakes and lizards Jacobson’s organ Extremely movable jaw
Olfactory organ
Tongue flicks out of the mouth and moves chemicals in the air to the organ
Extremely movable jaw
Northern Copperhead
Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake ( Photo by Eric Stine), Rough Green Snake (Photo by M.E. Dorcas), Scarlet Kingsnake (Photo by J.D. Willson), Green Anole (Photo by K. Cecala)
Rough Green Snake
Scarlet Kingsnake
Six-line Racerunner

20. Lizards Extremely variable and diverse Leg-less Lizards
Five-lined Skink
Extremely variable and diverse
Many endemic species
Leg-less Lizards
Glass Lizards or Jointed Snakes
Lizards have eyelids and ear holes that snakes do not
Fence Lizard
Photos by J.D. Willson, except Fence lizard by K. Cecala
Five-Lined Skink, Fence Lizard, Ground Skink, Slender Glass Lizard, Slender Glass Lizard
Slender Glass Lizard
Ground Skink

21. Snakes 30 species in Virginia 3 venomous species
Copperhead, Cottonmouth, Timber Rattlesnake.
Most species are non-venomous
Scarlet Kingsnake –
non-venomous
Photos by J.D. Willson: Scarlet Kingsnake, Ringneck Snake, Black Rat Snake.
Copperhead photo by Mike Clifford.
Ringneck Snake – non-venomous
Copperhead - venomous
Black Rat Snake – non-venomous

22. Snakes All lack legs Lack ear openings Shed their skin to grow
Hear vibrations through the ground
Shed their skin to grow
Either lay eggs or give birth to live young
Eastern Hognose Snake
Ringneck Snake
Eastern Hognose Snake (Photo by Pierson Hill), Ringneck Snake (Photo by M.E. Dorcas), Coachwhip, Redbelly Watersnake, Black Racer (all 3 Photos by J.D. Willson)
Redbelly Watersnake
Black Racer
Rainbow Snake

23. Snake Feeding Entirely carnivorous Swallow prey whole
Can eat prey much larger than themselves
Some use venom to immobilize prey
Some constrict their prey
Some actively forage for prey
Some sit and wait for prey to approach them
Eastern Cottonmouth eating a mouse
Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake eating a Cottontail Rabbit (Photo by Drew Sanders), Scarlet Kingsnake eating a Green Anole (Photo by J. D. Willson)
Northern Watersnake eating a fish

24. Snake Defense Mechanisms
Crypsis: Staying camouflaged
When detected:
Flee, musk, gape, rattle
When these do not work, snakes may strike
This occurs only when a snake feels threatened and has no other option to protect itself
Cottonmouth
Cottonmouth (Photo by J. D. Willson), Eastern Diamondback (Photo by Eric Stine), Eastern Hognose Snake (Photo by Pierson Hill), Brown Watersnake (Photo by K. Cecala)
Northern Copperhead
Eastern Hognose Snake
Brown Watersnake

25. Conservation Many amphibians are in decline
32% of amphibians endangered versus 12% of birds or 23% of mammals
43% of amphibian populations are declining
Few populations are known to be increasing
Grey Tree Frog
Grey Tree Frog (Photo by Aubrey Heupel), Red Salamander (Photo by K. Cecala), Bog Turtle (Photo by M.E. Dorcas), Eastern Kingsnake (Photo by J. D. Willson)
Red Salamander
Eastern Kingsnake
Bog Turtle

26. Causes of Decline Habitat destruction Disease Pollution
Over-exploitation
Climate change
Invasive species
How many are human caused?
Photos by Steve Price

27. What can you do? Enjoy finding and observing amphibians and reptiles
Don’t keep wild amphibians and reptiles as pets
Don’t kill snakes
Make sure you know a venomous species looks like before handling snakes, and NEVER touch or threaten a venomous snake
Don’t release any amphibian or reptile pet into the wild
Photobs by L. Harshaw, K. Cecala, and L. Harshaw

28. Questions?
Corn Snake
Corn Snake