1. Chapter 9: Human Development

3. EXPLORING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
WHAT IS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT?
THE PATTERN OF CONSTANT CHANGE IN HUMAN CAPABILITIES THROUGHOUT THE COURSE OF LIFE
3 TYPES
PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, & SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
1. Physical- changes in an individual’s biological nature
2. Cognitive- change in an individual’s thoughts, intelligence, & language
3. Socioemotional- changes in an individual’s relationships with others, in emotions and in personality

4. Research Methods in Developmental Psychology
Human development is about changes that occur with age.
Cross-sectional and Longitudinal studies
In cross-sectional studies a number of people of different ages are evaluated at one point in time.
In longitudinal studies the same participants are evaluated multiple times over several years.
There is one problem in cross-sectional studies known as the cohort effect…

5. The Cohort Effect
A cohort is a generational group, people born in the same time period.
Cohort effects are differences between people that most likely occur from the historical & social time period they were born rather than from their age group.
People were less likely to go to college in the 1940s than those born in the 1990s.

6. How do nature and nurture influence development??
Nature is based on our natural biological inheritance (Genes)
Nurture is based on our environment and social experiences
Development is the product of a combination of the both nature and nurture.
How do nature and nurture influence development??

7. Do we play a role in our development?
Is nature and nurture the only things that influence who we are going to be?
Some psychologist believe we can develop beyond our genes and environment by seeking optimal experiences in life.
We do this by developing life themes that involve activities, social relationships, and life goals.

8. Early versus Later Life Experiences
Some believe that if children are not nurtured properly they will not reach their full potential, while others emphasize the power of later experiences.
Life-span developmentalist (study children & adults) feel early experiences are very influential to development, but they are not necessarily more powerful than later experiences.
Resilience is an individual’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult situations.
Resilience is the key concept in understanding the role of negative early experiences in later development.

9. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD

10. Prenatal development
Prenatal development starts at conception and a zygote is produced with 23 chromosomes from the mother and father.
Zygote develops to fetus in 3 periods:
Germinal (week 1 and 2)
Begins with conception
Embryonic (weeks 3 through 8)
Cells begin to develop and organs begin to form
and Fetal (2 months through 9)
Organ functioning increases and the most baby weight happens
Threats to the Fetus
Teratogen
Any agent that causes a birth defect.
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
Abnormalities that appear due to heavy alcohol consumption
STIs and preterm infant birth can also threaten the fetus

11. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget believed children used schemas to make sense of their experience.
Schema- a mental concept that organizes and provides a structure for information interpretation
Schemas are developed two ways:
Assimilation- incorporating new information into existing knowledge
EXAMPLE: a young child may first develop a schema for a horse. She knows that a horse is large, has hair, four legs and a tail. When the little girl encounters a cow for the first time, she might initially call it a horse. After all, it fits in with her schema for the characteristics of a horse; it is a large animal that has hair, four legs and a tail. Once she is told that this is a different animal called a cow, she will modify her existing schema for a horse and create a new schema for a cow.
Accommodation- when a person adjust their schemas to new information
Instead of using an old way of doing things, a new experience promotes a new way of dealing with experience (Completely changing an idea or existing knowledge because of a new experience)
According to Piaget we go through 4 stages of understanding the world:

12. 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experience (like taste, seeing, hearing, touching) with motor (physical) actions.
By the end of this stage, 2 years olds should be more complex in their thinking, being able to use symbols and words.
Object Permanence- the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot actually be seen, heard, or touched.

13. 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
Children begin to represent their world in images, words, and drawings during the preschool ages.
But their thinking has not yet reached its potential, so according to Piaget it is limited.
Children are egocentric in this stage because they cannot put themselves in someone else’s shoes
They make judgments based on gut feelings rather than logic.

14. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
At this stage children can reason with logic; no longer just using intuitive reasoning.
Though children are able to use logic they can not yet think hypothetically.

15. 4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years to adulthood)
During this stage thoughts become more abstract; thinking about things that are not concrete.
Students begin to make predictions
Children begin to think idealistic (comparing how things are to how they could be)
Over the course of Piaget’s theory a person progresses from sensorimotor cognition, abstract thinking, idealistic, and logical thinking.

16. Lev Vygotsky (1962) Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
Piaget did not think that culture and education played an important role in children’s cognitive development.
Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is an interpersonal process that happens in a cultural context.
He believed children were apprentice thinkers and the more they interacted with more knowledgeable individuals like parents and teachers the more children developed.

17. Socioemotional Development in Infancy & Childhood
Temperament- an individual’s behavioral style and character way of responding
Three Basic types of temperament in children:
The easy child
Generally in a positive mood, establishes routines quick, easily adapts to new experiences
The difficult child
Reacts negatively, cries frequently. Slow to accept new experiences, and is irregular in routines.
The slow to warm up child
Somewhat negative, low activity level, inflexible, is cautious when faced with new experiences.

18. Attachment Harry Harlow (1958)
Cold wire mothers’ versus warm fuzzy cloth mothers’
Harlow’s study demonstrated the essential importance of warm contact, in order for an infant to form a bond with it’s caregiver, not feeding.
Infant attachment- close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver

19. Attachment Mary Ainsworth (1979)
The strange situation test- was used to measure children’s attachment to their caregiver
In the procedure, caregivers leave infants alone with a stranger, then return.
In this study children’s responses was used to classify 3 attachment styles:
Secure attachment
Avoidant
Anxious/ambivalent

20. Attachment
Secure attachment- uses mother as a secure base to explore the environment. In a strange situation, the infant is upset when the mother leaves, but is happy upon return. Infant moves freely, but keeps caregivers in close eye.
Avoidant- in a strange situation, the infant might not even notice the mother is gone
Anxious/ambivalent- infant responds with extreme distress, only to rage at the mother upon return.

21. Criticisms of Attachment theory
It does not take into account cultural variations
In some cultures, infants share strong attachments to many people.
It does not account for temperamental differences in infants
Caregivers and infants share common genetic characteristics and the attachment relationship could be a product of shared genes.

22. Erik Erickson’s (1902-1994) Theory of Socioemtional Development
Erickson’s theory views development as a lifelong process.
Developmental milestones occur in infancy to old age.
In each of Erikson’s developmental stages there are 2 possible outcomes:
Strength and competence
Greater weakness & vulnerability
The outcome depends on whether a person’s needs were met or not.
4 stages occur in childhood.
The last 4 stages occur in adolescence and adulthood.

23. Autonomy vs shame & doubt
Erikson’s Theory
Trust vs Mistrust
Autonomy vs shame & doubt
Initiative vs Guilt
Birth to 18 months
Trust is built in infancy
A baby’s basic needs should be met by a responsive, sensitive caregiver.
18 months to 3 years old
Infants begin to discover their own independence (autonomy)
The, “I can do it myself” phenomenon
If infants are punished too harshly or restricted too much in exploring their independence they are likely to development a sense of shame and doubt.
3 to 5 years
Preschoolers begin to form their own friendships & interest, as well as responsibilities
A sense of responsibility allows preschoolers to develop initiative
Otherwise they may feel guilty or anxious

24. Erikson’s Theory Industry vs Inferiority
Identity vs Identity Confusion
Intimacy vs Isolation
6 years to puberty (elementary school years)
Children begin to direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills
When they do not, they can feel inferior; developing a sense of incompetent & unproductive
Industry (gaining competence in academic skill, self-discipline and hard work.
Adolescence (10 to 20 years)
Individuals begin finding out who they are, what they are about, and where they’re going.
Exploration of alternative solutions to roles.
Career exploration
Early adulthood (20s & 30s)
Individuals face developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others
Erikson describes intimacy as finding oneself, yet yourself in another person

25. Generativity vs Stagnation
Erikson’s Theory
Generativity vs Stagnation
Integrity vs Despair
Middle adulthood (40s & 50s)
An important task for this stage is assisting the younger generation in development and leading useful lives
Late adulthood (60s & up)
These individuals begin to evaluate what they have done in their lives, and the outcome of reminiscing can be positive (integrity) or negative (despair).

26. Parenting & Childhood Socioemotional Development (Diana Baumrind, 1991, 1991, 2012)
Authoritarian parenting
Authoritative parenting
A strict parenting style.
“Do it my way or no way”
“Because I said so”
Encourages children to be independent but still places boundaries
More collaborative, give and take is allowed, parents are warm & nurturing

27. Parenting & Childhood Socioemotional Development
Neglectful parenting
Permissive parenting
A lack of parental involvement in a child’s life
Children of neglectful parents may develop a sense that other aspects of their parent’s lives are more important than them
This parenting style places few limits on the child’s behavior
The parents feel this will allow their children to be more creative and confident
These children rate poorly in social competence
They have not mastered controlling their emotions and behaviors

28. Moral Development in Childhood
Lawrence Kohlberg ( )
Kohlberg studied moral thinking by creating a series of stories & asking children, adolescents, and adults questions about the stories
The story of Heinz
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development consist of 3 levels

29. Kohlberg’s Theory (1958) Preconventional:
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
A person’s moral reasoning is based primarily on the consequences of behavior and punishments & rewards of the external world.

30. Kohlberg’s Theory (1958) Conventional:
Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
Individuals abide by the standards learned from parents or society’s laws. Heinz should follow the law, no matter the circumstances.

31. Kohlberg’s Theory (1958) Postconventional:
Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
Stage 6 - Universal Principles Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
A person recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and develops their own moral code. Heinz’s wife is more important than the law

32. Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura (1977)
People learn through observation, or modeling.
Two ways children learn gender roles is by:
Reward and punishment for specific gender roles
Watching and imitating the roles of others

33. Social Learning Theory
Children are encouraged to do the appropriate sex-typed activities by the following:
Parents
traditional roles feed to children in traditional families
Media
portrays traditional roles for females and males; female is still placed in the traditional domestic role
Schools
transmit the information of gender role stereotypes to children
Bobo doll experiment

34. Cognitive Development Theory
Children’s own cognitions are primarily responsible for gender role development
Kohlberg (1966, 1969)
children identify with and imitate same-sex parents, and others of their same gender
after children label themselves as male or female, the development of gender related interests and behavior quickly follow
Stages:
Gender Identity: The child knows that he or she is a male or a female, but the child fails to realize that gender is a constant attribute
Gender Consistency: the child knows that gender is stable over time

35. Gender Schema Theory
theory that children learn about what it means to be male and female from the culture in which they live. According to this theory, children adjust their behavior to fit in with the gender norms and expectations of their culture.

36. Chapter 11 Terms
Sex- refers to the properties of a person that determine his or her classification as male or female
Gender- refers to the social and psychological aspects of being male or female influenced by biological and social factors and experience
Gender identity- psychological perception’s of oneself as male or female, or an individual sense of belonging to the male or female sex.
Gender roles- expectations of how females and males should, think, act and feel
Sexual orientation- the direction of an individual’s sexual/erotic interests (Not on behaviors, but desires, feelings, fantasies, and a person’s sense of identity)